Deserted Britain: declining populations in the British Late Middle Pleistocene.

Deserted Britain: declining populations in the British Late Middle Pleistocene. Introduction Until the 1970s there was thought to be a semi-continuouspopulation in Britain from the earliest human occupation (e.g. Smith1894; 7; Evans 1897; 697-8; Paterson 1941: 408; Wymer 1968: 308-12).Since then, adoption of the oxygen isotope sequence, and refinements inbiostratigraphy bi��o��stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of the spatial and temporal distribution of fossil organisms, often interpolated with radiometric, geochemical, and paleoenvironmental information as a means of dating rock strata. and dating, have suggested that humans were present inBritain from at least Oxygen Isotope Stage (OIS Noun 1. OIS - agency that oversees the intelligence relationships of the Treasury's offices and bureaus and provides a link between the Intelligence Community and officials responsible for international economic policyOffice of Intelligence Support ) 13 (Roberts et al.1995), but that there was a possible absence during the lastinterglacial in��ter��gla��cial?adj.Occurring between glacial epochs.n.A comparatively short period of warmth during an overall period of glaciation. (OIS 5e) (Stuart 1976; Currant currant,northern shrub of the family Saxifragaceae (saxifrage family), of the same genus (Ribes) as the gooseberry bush. The tart berries of the currant may be black, white, or red; the white gooseberry becomes purple when mature. 1986; Wymer 1988). This hasbeen based on the apparent lack of artefacts associated with faunalassemblages that include hippopotamus hippopotamus,herbivorous, river-living mammal of tropical Africa. The large hippopotamus, Hippopotamus amphibius, has a short-legged, broad body with a tough gray or brown hide. , a marker species for the lastinterglacial (Sutcliffe 1975; Stuart 1976). More recently it has beensuggested that this absence may have extended throughout OIS 5 and into4 (Currant & Jacobi 2001) and possibly from OIS 6 (Jacobi et al.1998; Ashton in press). Here we look at the problem afresh, withparticular reference to evidence from the Middle Thames Valley This article is about the Thames Valley in southern England. For New Zealand's Thames Valley region, see Thames Valley, New Zealand, or for the ITV region in the United Kingdom, see ITV Thames Valley. . Problems and methods Assessments of Palaeolithic population levels are problematic,particularly due to the variable preservation of artefact-bearingdeposits. Further problems arise from the variable intensity offieldwork. Equally, the interpretation of individual sites in terms ofpopulation is rarely straightforward; a thousand artefacts mightrepresent occasional discard over several thousand years, or simply anafternoon's knapping. Some of these problems may be circumvented by examining fluvial flu��vi��al?adj.1. Of, relating to, or inhabiting a river or stream.2. Produced by the action of a river or stream.[Middle English, from Latin terrace aggradations, where any artefacts within the terrace unitrepresent a variety of activities from a broad area over a definedlength of time (cf Hosfield 1999). Each terrace unit can be compared toyounger or older units, providing a mechanism for assessing change inartefact See artifact. numbers through time. The problem of variable preservation ofsedimentary units is overcome through mapping of the terraces, andcollector bias is reduced through selection of part of a single riversystem. Finally, use of this method removes the problems of interpretingthe length of time represented by individual assemblages. The Middle Thames Valley is a good area to test the method; it hasa rich history of collecting and fieldwork, with numerous sites andfind-spots, while the terraces are well mapped and their chronology iswell constrained (Bridgland 1994; TABLE 1; FIGURE 1). The artefacts fromthese terrace aggradations are, in the majority of cases, derived, andmust be interpreted with care. States of condition vary from little orno edge abrasion to rolled. It is assumed, though, that in most casesartefacts originate from sedimentary units that are only slightly olderthan the gravels into which they have been incorporated. In theory, mucholder artefacts could be reworked into younger terrace aggradations,increasing artefact numbers in the lower terraces. The suggestion beingtested is that population decreases through time, making any decrease inartefact numbers more significant if artefacts have been reworked fromhigher terraces. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Many factors affect the rate and type of recovery. The majority ofartefacts from the Middle Thames were collected (not excavated) byindividuals who in many cases either recovered the artefacts from activegravel pits (e.g. Brown 1887) or otherwise from trenches for housefoundations (Smith 1894). This type of collecting was important from the1890s until the start of mechanised digging in the 1930s. The timing ofgravel-pit development and of urbanization have therefore had animportant impact on artefact recovery. Unfortunately different artefact types have been selectivelyrecovered, with flakes and cores kept by some collectors, but not byothers. Bifaces, however, were more easily recognized and universallycollected, providing therefore a better reflection of artefact densitieswithin the study area. The lower prevalence of bifaces in MiddlePalaeolithic assemblages can be compensated for in part by the inclusionof Levallois flakes and cores. Therefore, the occurrence of bifaces andLevallois artefacts (although they are not necessarily equivalent) areused as the proxy for artefact discard rates. How far population isreflected in artefact discard also needs consideration. Changes in rawmaterial availability, artefact function or increasing reliance on othermaterials, are all factors that might influence discard rates throughtime, but unfortunately are difficult to assess, other than recognizingthem as possible sources of bias. Results The results (TABLE 1) are based on the data in the English RiversPalaeolithic Survey (1991-97). The density of artefacts (i.e. number ofhandaxes and Levallois flakes and cores/sq. km) in each of the terraceaggradations can be adjusted to account for the time period encompassedby each aggradation, and is estimated by correlation with the oxygenisotope record (TABLE 1). Most aggradations represent approximately100,000 years, corresponding to an interglacial-glacial cycle, thoughfor the Black Park terrace only 15,000 years are estimated as it formedtowards the end of the Anglian glaciation (OIS 12) (Maddy &Bridgland 2000). Gravel accumulation would not have been continuousthroughout these periods, being punctuated by phases of erosion.However, this provides a time-averaged indication of fluvial depositionand artefact accumulation. Adjustment for this (TABLE 1; FIGURE 2a)indicates a steady decline in artefact densities through time from theBlack Park to Lynch Hill terraces, and then very small densities for theTaplow and Kempton Park Kempton Park may refer to: Kempton Park, Gauteng, a large town on the East Rand, South Africa Kempton Park, Surrey, a district in the borough of Spelthorne, Surrey, UK, adjacent to Sunbury-on-Thames terraces. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] TABLE 1 shows the amount of urban growth over each terrace area,based on 1-inch Ordnance Survey Ordnance SurveyNounthe British government organization that produces detailed maps of Britain and IrelandNoun 1. Ordnance Survey - the official cartography agency of the British government maps of 1861 and 1927. These indicate apotential source of bias, with urbanization primarily taking place overthe Kempton Park and Lynch Hill terraces. Here the same trend emerges(FIGURE 2b), although the Black Park terrace cannot be used as there isno recorded urban growth over that terrace area. The extent of gravel extraction (TABLE 1), taken from the 1930sLand Utilisation Survey of Britain, underestimates likely quarryingactivity, but provides a rough indication of relative activity in eachterrace area. Again, taking this into consideration (FIGURE 2c) the samebroad pattern holds, other than the Black Park terrace where artefactdensities are lower than shown by other measures. Discussion Although the analysis has attempted to minimize the biases in thedata, some problems remain. The meaning of the contradictory figures forthe Black Park terrace remains unclear, but may reflect populationduring OIS 13, rather than late OIS 12. The most notable feature of theresults is the marked decline in artefact densities from the Boyn Hillterrace through to the Kempton Park terrace, with a particularlynoticeable drop from the Taplow terrace on. This suggests thatpopulations were at a peak from the end of OIS 13 through to 10 and thendeclined into OIS 8, dropping sharply from OIS 7. This pattern of declining populations has been noted elsewhere(Ashton in press; White & Jacobi in press). The number of sitesthroughout Britain attributable to OIS 7 is very low (TABLE 2), and theyoften have very small numbers of artefacts. The exceptions are Crayford(Bridgland 1994) and Pontnewydd (Green 1984). Levallois sites that mightbe attributed to this stage are those around Yiewsley and Ealing, inparticular Creffield Road. But these artefacts occur in brickearthoverlying overlyingsuffocation of piglets by the sow. The piglets may be weak from illness or malnutrition, the sow may be clumsy or ill, the pen may be inadequate in size or poorly designed so that piglets cannot escape. Lynch Hill gravel (Brown 1887) the age of which remainsunclear (Gibbard 1995a: 95-100). Currently no archaeological sites can definitely be attributed toOIS 6 and 5. Twenty-six artefacts from terrace 4 of the WarwickshireAvon (Whitehead 1988), attributed by Maddy et al. (1991) to OIS 7/6, arevery rolled and undoubtedly derived. Equally, at Cassington almost 100artefacts have been recovered from the base of deposits that have beenattributed to OIS 5a (Maddy et al. 1998; Terry Hardaker pers. comm.),but their condition also suggests derivation. The absence of humans maycontinue into OIS 4; Currant & Jacobi (2001) suggest that sites with`Banwell' type faunas, which they attribute to this stage, are notassociated with artefacts, in contrast to `Pin Hole' type faunas(probably OIS 3) that have an undoubted human association. The reasons for human absence from OIS 6 to OIS 4 Two contributory factors may be suggested to explain the apparentabsence of humans from Britain for some 130,000 years, from OIS 6 topossibly the end of OIS 4. Factor 1. The harsh climate during OIS 6 and the rapid severing ofBritain from mainland Europe during OIS 5e are critical. The history ofBritain's isolation from the continental mainland is important tounderstanding the occupation of Britain by humans (Preece 1995; White& Schreve 2000). It has been suggested (e.g. Gibbard 1995b) thatoverflow from a proglacial lake In geology, a proglacial lake is a lake formed either by the damming action of a moraine or ice dam during the retreat of a melting glacier, or one formed by meltwater trapped against an ice sheet due to isostatic depression of the crust around the ice. in the southern North Sea breached theChalk of the Dover Strait during the Anglian (OIS 12). However, datingof this event is problematic because of the paucity of sediments in thearea of the Strait, other than at Wissant and Wimereux (France). Theyare poorly dated and variously interpreted as overspill from theproglacial lake (Gibbard 1995b), or as fluvial sediments (Bridgland& D'Olier 1995). The only other evidence lies at Herzeele(France), where deposits, interpreted as either OIS 13 or 11 (Meijer& Preece 1995), are argued to rest on a flat which continues intothe northern end of the strait at Wissant, and therefore post-date thebreach. By contrast, van Vliet-Lanoe et al. (2000) suggest that thehistory of the connection of Britain to mainland Europe is far morecomplex and was governed by the combination of neotectonics ne��o��tec��ton��ics?n. (used with a sing. verb)A technique for predicting earthquakes that involves measuring the rate of slippage of landmarks along faults. andsea-level change. They suggest `a possible closed status of the Straituntil OIS 7' (van Vliet-Lanoe et al. 2000: 34). The molluscan mol��lus��canalso mol��lus��kan ?adj.Of or relating to the mollusks.n.A mollusk. evidence also suggests a late date for the breach.The presence of warm, marine molluscan faunas in the North Sea has beentaken as evidence of a marine link with the Channel, with the firstsubstantial evidence from sites on the Dutch coast dated to OIS 5e(Meijer & Preece 1995). Comparison of faunas between Britain and thecontinent have also been used, so that the occurrence at Swanscombe andpossibly Clacton of `Rhenish' molluscs suggests that the Thames andRhine systems were connected during OIS 11. The first good evidence fora difference in British and continental faunas is from OIS 5e, where themollusc molluscmembers of the phylum Mollusca, which comprises about 50,000 species. Includes snails, slugs and the aquatic molluscs��oysters, mussels, clams, cockles, arkshells, scallop, abalone, cuttlefish, squid. Theodoxus fluviatilis Theodoxus fluviatilis, the River nerite, is a small species of snail or gastropod in the family Neritidae. The species is mostly found in calcium-rich, clean, fast-moving fresh water, but it can also tolerate low-salinity brackish water. (Meijer & Preece 1995) seems to beabsent from Britain. Although there are some differences in mammalassemblages from earlier phases, these may be climatic. The firstnotable depletion of the British fauna occurs in OIS 5e, where horseEquus ferus, extinct rhinoceros rhinoceros,massive hoofed mammal of Africa, India, and SE Asia, characterized by a snout with one or two horns. The rhinoceros family, along with the horse and tapir families, forms the order of odd-toed hoofed mammals. Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis, and thepine vole pine volen.See pine mouse.Noun 1. pine vole - short-tailed glossy-furred burrowing vole of the eastern United Statespine mouse, Pitymys pinetorum Microtus (Terricola) sp.(= Pitymys) (Sutcliffe 1995; Stuart1995) are missing. Continued separation from mainland Europe during later OIS 5 hasbeen tentatively suggested by Keen (1995), with an estimate that sealevels may have only dropped to -25 m during OIS 5d and 5b, whereas theChannel at this time might have been as deep as -40 m. Any landbridgewould be dependant on Adj. 1. dependant on - determined by conditions or circumstances that follow; "arms sales contingent on the approval of congress"contingent on, contingent upon, dependant upon, dependent on, dependent upon, depending on, contingent the height of the southern North Sea basin, whichis also currently at -40 m (Bridgland & D'Olier 1995). The combination, therefore, of sea-level and climate provides onefactor of why human populations were absent apparently from OIS 6 toperhaps OIS 4. The major phase of more amenable climate during OIS 5coincided perhaps with the first major isolation of Britain frommainland Europe. Factor 2. The second factor is based on suggested changes in theclimatic and habitat preferences of humans in the Middle Palaeolithic(Ashton in press; see also Roebroeks et al. 1992). It is argued that theearliest colonizers of northern Europe favoured the warmer climates ofthe oceanic west (papers in Roebroeks & van Kolfschoten 1995), butby the Middle Palaeolithic there was increasing adaptation to more open,often cooler environments. This change in habitat preference can benoted in Britain from OIS 8-7, where the only sites associated with warmconditions contain small quantities of artefacts (TABLE 2). In northwestEurope there also appears to be a paucity of sites that can beattributed with certainty to OIS 5e. Of nine sites that do survive ineastern Germany Eastern Germany refers to: German Democratic Republic or East Germany, communist state from 1949-1990 Former eastern territories of Germany, in Germany known as ehemalige (deutsche) Ostgebiete: (Roebroeks & Tuffreau 1999), only four haveassemblages of more than a handful of artefacts. Part of this apparentpattern of low human density may be preservational (Speelers 2000); innorthwest France many of the lower fluvial terraces are buried beneaththe modern floodplain floodplain,level land along the course of a river formed by the deposition of sediment during periodic floods. Floodplains contain such features as levees, backswamps, delta plains, and oxbow lakes. , while erosion during OIS 5d has createdartefactual adj. 1. of or pertaining to an artefact.2. made by human actions.Adj. 1. artefactual - of or relating to artifactsartifactual palimpsests at the top of last interglacial raised beachesthat are difficult to date. Given the paucity of evidence for OIS 5e sites in northwest Europe,it is not surprising that the large number of sites from OIS 6-3 are,where it can be discerned, usually associated with cooler, often open,steppic conditions. As Bosinski noted, Middle Palaeolithic German sitesare dominated by mammoth, reindeer and horse (1967: 69: TABLE 12).Despite the potential problems of preservation, it seems clear thathumans were adapting better to more open and at times cooler conditions,in particular the rich environments of the mammoth-steppe (Guthrie1990). This might suggest that during warm periods human populationstended to survive better on the steppes of the east, only colonizingnorthwest Europe as climate cooled, following the westward expansion ofthese steppe steppe(stĕp), temperate grassland of Eurasia, consisting of level, generally treeless plains. It extends over the lower regions of the Danube and in a broad belt over S and SE European and Central Asian Russia, stretching E to the Altai and S to biomes, and perhaps retreating to southern refugia In the most basic biological sense refugia (singular: refugium) are locations of isolated or relict populations of once widespread animal or plant species. This isolation (allopatry) can be due to climatic changes or human activities such as deforestation and over-hunting. duringglacial extremes. However, the distribution and movement of herds in themore open landscapes would have required greater mobility by humanpopulations and new strategies for exploiting their resources, throughthe development of more sustained hunting and reflected in more complexsocial organisations (Gamble 1995). Advances in technology are likely to have played a major role, fromimprovements in hunting equipment to the development of measures forcoping with the cold. Gaudzinski (1999) noted a change in butchery andhunting patterns from OIS 7, signifying more organised predation predationForm of food getting in which one animal, the predator, eats an animal of another species, the prey, immediately after killing it or, in some cases, while it is still alive. Most predators are generalists; they eat a variety of prey species. .Evidence of increased hunting specialisation is recorded from sites suchas La Borde, France (probably OIS 7--Jaubert et al. 1990), La Cotte deSt Brelade La Cotte de St Brelade is a Paleolithic site of early habitation in St Brelade, Jersey. Cotte means "cave" in J��rriais; the cave is also known as L�� Creux ��s F��es. on Jersey (OIS 6--Scott 1986) and Wallertheim (probably OIS5d--Gaudzinski 1995). Levallois technology can also been linked to changes in hunting.Geneste (1989) demonstrated that in southwest France, Levalloistechnology occurs on the more exotic raw materials and is carried longerdistances. White & Pettitt (1995) argued that Levallois wasspecifically a technology geared towards greater mobility. This isreflected in the longer transport distances in the Middle Palaeolithicof lithics in general (Roebroeks et al. 1988), with distances in easternEurope Eastern EuropeThe countries of eastern Europe, especially those that were allied with the USSR in the Warsaw Pact, which was established in 1955 and dissolved in 1991. of up to 300 km (Feblot-Augustins 1999). Thus factor 2 proposes progressive advances in technology, inhunting strategies and successful adaptation to open, often coolenvironments, with the consequent changes on social structure, that ledto increasing reliance on the biota biota/bi��o��ta/ (bi-o��tah) all the living organisms of a particular area; the combined flora and fauna of a region. bi��o��tan.The flora and fauna of a region. of the mammoth-steppe. The effectfor northwest Europe was low or absent populations in warm periods withan increasing human presence as climate cooled, but retreat to southernrefugia during glacial maxima. Synthesis. In combination these factors of changing habitatpreference, climate and fluctuating sea-level determine the pattern ofBritain's occupation, and may account for a decline or absence ofhumans in Britain from OIS 6 to 3. White & Schreve (2000) have emphasized the significance ofchanges in Britain's connection to mainland Europe for Lower andMiddle Palaeolithic archaeological signatures. Assuming the breach ofthe Kent-Artois plateau dates to OIS 12, they have proposed threegeographic situations during subsequent climatic cycles: 1 times of maximum glaciation, with the landbridge established, butBritain uninhabitable; 2 cooler episodes, where the landbridge is still maintained, butmore favourable conditions pertain for occupation; 3 fully interglacial conditions when Britain becomes isolated andcolonization is difficult from mainland Europe. However, if the breach occurred later (as suggested in factor 1) afourth, post-Anglian geographic scenario needs to be considered: aninterglacial, pre-breach situation, where Britain is both habitable habitableadj. referring to a residence that is safe and can be occupied in reasonable comfort. Although standards vary by region, the premises should be closed in against the weather, provide running water, access to decent toilets and bathing facilities, heating, andaccessible. The importance of this to the stability of human occupationis immense. Prior to the breach the cycle of occupation could have beensemi-continuous with constant access to and from mainland Europe, withphases of non-occupation during glacial maxima. After the breach,occupation or potential for colonization would have been much morepunctuated, being dependant on the competing factors of a significantdrop in sea-level (below c. 40 m), and a climate moderate enough forhuman occupation. It is possible to explore the interaction of these factors usingoxygen isotope records as indicators of climate and glacio-eustatic sealevel trends over the last 500,000 years (Shackleton & Opdyke 1973).Global sea-level estimates derived from isotope signals and those fromraised coral terraces such as the Huon Peninsula, New Guinea, show goodagreement and are well calibrated, particularly for the last 140,000years (Chappell 1974; Chappell & Shackleton 1986; Chappell et al.1996; Pillans et al. 1998). Adjacent to the continental ice sheets,sea-level movements are also affected by glacio-isostatic mechanisms.The interaction of eustatic and isostatic i��sos��ta��sy?n.Equilibrium in the earth's crust such that the forces tending to elevate landmasses balance the forces tending to depress landmasses. components can lead to complexpatterns of sea-level change (Gray 1995). However, in southern Englandsea-level change since the last glacial maximum The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refers to the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glaciation (the W��rm or Wisconsin glaciation), approximately 20,000 years ago. This extreme persisted for several thousand years. is dominantly a functionof glacio-eustatic sea-level rise (Devoy 1979), though glacio-isostaticfactors are still important (Lambeck 1991). This may have been the caseduring the Middle Pleistocene. If the isotope curve is accepted as an approximation ofglacio-eustatic sea level, it is possible to scale the isotope curve tosea level using a last interglacial high sea-level stand of +6 m and alow sea-level stand during the last glacial maximum of -120 m (Chappell1974; Chappell & Shackleton 1986; Gvirtzman 1994). This provides anestimate of sea-level patterns over the last 500,000 years (FIGURE 3).The isotope signal also provides a general indication ofglacial-interglacial climatic fluctuations and these trends may be usedto estimate those periods when conditions were probably too harsh topermit occupation of Britain. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] Occupation of Britain from Europe was therefore possible when sealevel was low enough to create a landbridge and climate was sufficientlybenign to allow human presence (FIGURE 3). Two scenarios for the timingof the breach are depicted, OIS 12 and OIS 6. In both cases thepost-breach situation is one of very limited `windows ofopportunity' to reach Britain. This is particularly the case at theend of each cold phase due to rapid deglaciation de��gla��ci��a��tion?n.The uncovering of glaciated land because of melting or sublimation of the glacier.deglaciation?The uncovering of land that was previously covered by a glacier. and therefore sea-levelrise. If the breach occurred during OIS 12 the population influx at theOIS 12/11 boundary must have been large enough to create a sustainablepopulation during the following island phase. The high population levelsduring OIS 11 and 9 relative to 7 and 5e may be better explained by alater breach, perhaps during OIS 8 or 6, allowing more continuous accessto Britain from the rest of Europe during OIS 11 and 9. If the breach occurred during OIS 8, low and/ or isolatedpopulations might be expected during OIS 7 with possible extinction inthe harsh climate of OIS 6. Rapid warming at the OIS 6/5 boundary wouldhave given humans very limited time to recolonize Re`col´o`nizev. t. 1. To colonize again. from southern refugia,with an estimated sea-level rise of 50 m in 3000 years (Shackleton1987). As the mammoth steppe retreated east during OIS 5e, so too didhumans, leaving only small or isolated populations in the forests ofnorthwest Europe. Isolation of Britain may have continued throughout OIS5 (Keen 1995; but see FIGURE 3), which together with the colder climateof OIS 4, may have made Britain difficult or unattractive for humancolonization until OIS 3. Conclusions This model suggests that formation of the English Channel changedthe cycle and stability of human occupation, through the sensitiveinterplay of sea level and climate change. At the same time, with theprogressive change in human habitat preferences, Britain and north-westEurope became less attractive for colonization, except in cool, openconditions. The strength of the model lies in the robust evidence forpopulation decline from the data in the Middle Thames valley, althoughthis needs to be substantiated by evidence from other valley systems.The mechanisms by which this population decline came about need muchfurther investigation, in particular research into the timing of thebreach, investigation of the effect of isostatic factors on sea-levelchange, together with a better understanding of human habitat tolerancesand preferences in northwest Europe during the Middle Palaeolithic.TABLE 1. Artefact numbers and densities for different terrace areastaking into account time estimates for terrace aggradation, urbangrowth 1861-1927 and quarrying until 1932/35.terrace OIS duration no. of terrace artefact estimate artefacts area density/ (yrs) * (bifaces (sq. km) sq. km and Levallois pieces)Black Park late 12 15,000 373 17.9 20.8Boyn Hill 11-10 75,000 808 11.9 67.9Lynch Hill 9-8 100,000 3038 59.2 51.3Taplow 7-6 110,000 143 36.4 3.9Kempton Park 5-2? 112,000 9 60.4 0.1terrace artefact urban artefact quarrying artefact density/ growth density until density 100,000 1861-1927 over 1932/35 over area years (sq. km) area (sq. km) of of urban quarrying/ growth/ 100,000 100,000 years yearsBlack Park 139 0 -- 0.15 16,580Boyn Hill 90 2.42 445 0.04 26,933Lynch Hill 51 15.78 192 0.23 13,208Taplow 3 4.04 32 0.57 227Kempton Park 0.1 24.67 0.4 0.36 22* Figures taken from Maddy & Bridgland 2000.TABLE 2. All major, datable sites for the Early British MiddlePalaeolithic.site context dating archaeological (OIS) environmentPurfleet upper gravel early 8 cool ??, (Botany Pit) river-edgeEbbsfleet Channel coombe rock/ late 8 cool, (Baker's Hole) basal gravel river-edgeWest Thurrock, basal gravel late 8 cool, Lion Pit tramway river-edgeCrayford base of late 8/ cool-warm ?, brickearth early 7 river-edgePontnewydd Lower mid 7 cool-temperate, Breccia open steppe, cave, river-edgeAveley interglacial early 7 warm sandsMaidenhall/Stoke `Bone Bed' 7 warm, open Tunnel deciduous woodland, river-edgeBrundon base 7 warm, stratum 3 open, river- edgeStanton Harcourt Channel 7 warm, open woodland, river-edgeSelsey Channel 7 warm, river-edgeAveley interglacial late 7 warm silty clayssite in situ/ industry artefacts primary/ secondary contextPurfleet secondary bifaces, 3800 (Botany Pit) `proto- Levallois'Ebbsfleet Channel primary bifaces, 1400 (Baker's Hole) LevalloisWest Thurrock, primary Levallois 170 Lion Pit tramwayCrayford in situ blade 500 LevalloisPontnewydd primary- bifaces, 1500 secondary LevalloisAveley primary flakes 5Maidenhall/Stoke primary Levallois 20 TunnelBrundon primary + Levallois < 280 secondaryStanton Harcourt secondary bifaces, 20+ cores and flakesSelsey primary Levallois 4Aveley primary Levallois 3 core, flakessite main referencePurfleet Bridgland et al. 1995 (Botany Pit)Ebbsfleet Channel Wenban-Smith 1995 (Baker's Hole)West Thurrock, Bridgland 1994: 237-51 Lion Pit tramwayCrayford Bridgland 1994: 249-50Pontnewydd Green 1984Aveley M. White pers. comm.Maidenhall/Stoke Wymer 1985: 234 TunnelBrundon Wymer 1985: 200Stanton Harcourt Buckingham et al. 1996Selsey Sutcliffe 1995Aveley M. White pers. comm. Acknowledgements. We would like to thank Roger Jacobi, SimonParfitt, Mark White and David Keen for reading and constructivelycommenting on earlier drafts of this paper, and we are grateful toStephen Crummy crum��myalso crumb��y ?adj. crum��mi��er also crumb��i��er, crum��mi��est also crumb��i��est Slang1. Miserable or wretched: a crummy situation in the family.2. for the production of FIGURES 1 & 2. This paper ispart of the Ancient Human Occupation of Britain project, funded by theLeverhulme Trust. References ASHTON, N.M. In press. Absence of humans in Britain during the lastinterglacial (oxygen isotope stage 5e), in Roebroeks & Tuffreau(ed.). BOSINSKI, G. 1967. Die Mittelpalaolithischen funde im WestlichenMitteleuropa. Cologne: Bohlau Verlag. BRIDGLAND, D.R. 1994. 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NICK ASHTON & SIMON LEWIS * * Ashton, Department of Prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to & Early Europe, The BritishMuseum, Great Russell Street, London WC1B 3DG, England. Lewis,Department of Geography, Queen Mary, University of London For most practical purposes, ranging from admission of students to negotiating funding from the government, the 19 constituent colleges are treated as individual universities. Within the university federation they are known as Recognised Bodies , Mile EndRoad, London E1 4NS, England. Received 22 October 2001, accepted 21 December 2001, revised 24January 2002