Did Neanderthals eat inner bark?

Did Neanderthals eat inner bark? Introduction The recent publication of a series of modified, pointed mammothribs from the Middle Palaeolithic site of Salzgitter-Lebenstedt hasraised several issues about Neanderthal mental and motor capabilities(Gaudzinsld 1999). No strong suggestions as to what these objects mighthave been used for have been put forward. We would like to suggest thatthese, and other bone, antler, and wooden items recovered from EuropeanPalaeolithic sites, may have been bark peelers used to procure innerbark from trees and that this was an early and widespread Palaeolithicactivity. Many modern and recently extant indigenous groups from thetemperate regions of the globe have exploited the inner bark of certaintree species as a food and medicine. In ethnographic cases where data isavailable, the inner bark is collected following the removal of theouter bark, which is carried out with a simple pointed tool that wasmanufactured and maintained specifically for this purpose. It is notedhere that the known illustrations and ethnographic examples of thesetools are very similar in size and form to a number of artefactsrecovered from Palaeolithic contexts in temperate Europe. Ethnographic bark peeling Inner bark is the living, growing material of a tree that is addedeach year between the inner woody trunk and the outer bark components.It is described in ethnographic accounts as either a staple, asupplement to more staple resources, starvation food, as a'treat', or, for some tree species, as having medicinal value(Turner 1988). In addition, both the outer bark and inner bark ofvarious deciduous deciduous/de��cid��u��ous/ (de-sid��u-us) falling off or shed at maturity, as the teeth of the first dentition. de��cid��u��ousadj.1. and conifer trees have been used ethnographically asconstruction materials for such things as cordage cordage(kôr`dĭj), collective name for rope and other flexible lines. It is used for such purposes as wrapping, hauling, lifting, and power transmission. Early man used strips of hide, animal hair, and plant materials. and weaving materialsfor containers, clothing, and shelter. Bark is also a common food amongthe great apes and, based on this, Watanabe (1985:12) suggested that itcould be expected that it was a common food resource among the earlyhumans first moving into more temperate regions and among the classicNeanderthals of Europe. It would certainly be an attractive and abundantresource during the colder climatic periods, including the last glacialmaximum The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refers to the time of maximum extent of the ice sheets during the last glaciation (the W��rm or Wisconsin glaciation), approximately 20,000 years ago. This extreme persisted for several thousand years. in Europe. Ethnographic evidence indicates that inner bark was exploited as afood resource all across the temperate globe. In North America it wasused by pre-and post-European contact groups in the Pacific north-west(Eidlitz 1969; Turner 1975; People of the 'Ksan 1980; Turner &Hebda 1989; Gottesfeld 1992; Mobely & Eldridge 1992; Kuhnlein &Turner 1996), in the Interior Plateau region (Teit 1900; Morice 1910;Turner 1987), in the Plains (Swetnam 1984; Kuhnlcin & Turner 1996),in the American south-west (Swetnam 1984), in the eastern and sub-ArcticWoodlands (Kuhnlein &Turner 1996), and in the eastern Maritimes(Kuhnlein &Turner 1996). In Eurasia it is known to have beenexploited by eastern Russian agricultural populations at least up to thelate nineteenth century (Maack 1870; Krashninnikov 1972), and inScandinavian regions (Eidlitz 1969; Airaksinen 1986; Niklasson 1994;Zackrisson et al. 2000). Inner bark was typically collected in the spring and early summerwhen other resources were often in scarce supply or of poor nutritionalquality (in many places the spring was a starvation period). It includesthe (vascular) cambium cambium(kăm`bēəm), thin layer of generative tissue lying between the bark and the wood of a stem, most active in woody plants. The cambium produces new layers of phloem on the outside and of xylem (wood) on the inside, thus increasing and associated layers of non-woody tissues; inparticular, secondary phloem phloem(flō`ĕm): see bark; stem. phloemor bastPlant tissues that conduct foods made in the leaves to all other parts of the plant. . It forms between the secondary xylem xylem(zī`ləm): see stem; wood. xylemPart of a plant's vascular system that conveys water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant and furnishes mechanical support. (theinner tree wood) and the primary phloem (the innermost component of theouter bark layer) and these tissues develop from it (Figure 1) (Bowes1996: 67; Larson 1994:67-68, 1982). Spring/ early summer is the time ofyear when this layer is forming and is still physically separate fromthe outer bark and the secondary xylem on either side of it. Toward theend of this season the inner bark layer quickly becomes tougher as itdifferentiates into the tougher primary phloem and secondary xylemtissues. When the bark is removed the inner bark is in the soft, moiststage and it is relatively easy to scrape from the surface of the treeor from the inner surface of the removed bark. It is typically scrapedoff with a small chisel-like tool (of wood, bone, antler, or metal) inlong noodle-like strips. Initially these are rather sticky, gelatinous gelatinous/ge��lat��i��nous/ (je-lat��i-nus) like jelly or softened gelatin. ge��lat��i��nousadj.1. Of, relating to, or containing gelatin.2. Resembling gelatin; viscous. ,and sweet tasting and were often eaten fresh, sometimes mixed withanimal grease. They do, however, rapidly dry out and sour if leftuneaten or unprocessed. If they were not eaten fresh they were commonlyeither boiled or baked (in earth ovens) and sometimes then pounded intoa mouldable dough which could be dried for future use (People of the'Ksan 1980; Turner 1975; Kuhnlein & Turner 1996). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Tree species that are known to have been exploited ethnographicallyin temperate North America for their inner bark include those listed inTable 1. Species exploited in Eurasia include pine (Pinus sp.) (especiallyScot's pine, Pinus sylvestris L.), larch (Larix sp.), and willow(Salix sp.) Little mention is made in the ethnographies about the age or sizeof the trees exploited. Generally though, the bark of smaller, youngertrees tends to be thinner, softer, and, therefore, easier to remove, butyields less inner bark for the effort than larger trees. Larger treesprovide greater quantities of inner bark and also are more likely torequire the use of a tool to aid in the removal of their bark. Nutritional specifics The acquisition of the resource requires that the tough outer barklayer of a tree be peeled back in order to expose the underlying innerbark layer. On the north-west coast of North America and among groupsliving in the interior plateau region of British Columbia, this wasaccomplished in the past with the use of a chisel-shaped or spatulatedstick, bone or antler that could be wedged into a cut in the bark andthen used to pry the bark back (for photos of traditional application ofa bark peeler see Turner 1988:182, Figure 4; Hall 1986). While survivingillustrations of these tools indicate that they were not typicallyoverly elaborate, they were apparently manufactured and retained forthis specific use. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] Some good, early ethnographic descriptions and illustrations ofbark peelers come from James Teit who travelled among coastal andinterior groups in the American north-west at the end of the nineteenthand beginning of the twentieth centuries. He notes that among theThompson people of the Interior "[T]o separate the bark from thetree, a short piece of horn or wood was used" (Teit 1900: 233).Among the Shushwap he says "[b]ark was stripped off trees withbark-peelers made of antler. A few of these were made of wood andhorn" (Teit 1909: 515). The two bark peelers that Teit providesillustrations of (Figure 2) are both of caribou Caribou, town, United StatesCaribou(kâr`ĭb), town (1990 pop. 9,415), Aroostook co., NE Maine, on the Aroostook River; inc. 1859. (Rangifer tarandus Rangifer tarandussee reindeer. )antler. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Father A. G. Morice (1910: 423) described bark peelers used amongthe Dene dene?n. Chiefly BritishA sandy tract or dune by the seashore.[Possibly East Frisian d��ne, a sand dune; akin to dune. of the British Columbia Interior The British Columbia Interior or BC Interior or Interior of British Columbia, usually referred to only as The Interior, is one of the three main regions of the Canadian province of British Columbia, the other two being the Lower Mainland, which comprises the as "the shoot of acariboo horn". A native informant born in western Montana in 1879described bark peelers used among the Kutenai there as "... awooden pole, sharpened at one end ..." (Swemam 1984: 180). The Provincial Museum of British Columbia has two bark peelers(made from caribou antler) collected from the central Interior of theprovince in the 1920s that very closely resemble the more elaborate ofthe two illustrated in Figure 2. Hayden (2000, 1997) recovered a 1000+ year old, elk antler barkpeeler during excavations at Keatley Creek, a prehistoric site in theBritish Columbia Interior (Figure 3). [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] A few less-than-clear descriptions from European ethnographies areavailable as well. For bark removal in Sweden in the past, Eidlitz(1969:59) notes only that "[s]pecial implements were used for thispurpose': Zackrisson et al. (2000:100) observe that among the Saamipeople in Sweden, "... the bark strip was ripen rip��en?tr. & intr.v. rip��ened, rip��en��ing, rip��ensTo make or become ripe or riper; mature. See Synonyms at mature.rip peeled from part ofthe tree using a broad bladed scraper with a handle". Airaksinen etal. (1986:275) describe bark removal during periods of famine in Finland"[a] cut was then made on the trunk with a knife and the whole barkcylinder was taken off carefully with a special tool made from a branchof pine or from reindeer antler". The examples of bark peelers for which dimensions are availableFall within a narrow range of overall lengths. Teit's twoillustrated examples are 49 and 44 cm in length. The two examples in theProvincial Museum of British Columbia collections are 52 and 46 cm inlength, approximately 3 cm at the maximum width of the shafts, and 1.3cm at the thickest part of the shafts. The Keatley Creek specimen is 41cm in length, 4.7 cm in maximum width, and 2 cm in maximum thickness(see Figure 3). Artefacts from Palaeolithic sites Artefacts closely resembling ethnographic examples of bark peelershave been recovered from a number of different Palaeolithic sites orlocales in north-western Europe. Several wooden artefacts were recovered from the site of Schoningenin north-central Germany which has been placed between the Elsterian andSaalian glaciations. This would put the age of the site at around 400000 years BE Among the wooden artefacts recovered was a 78 cm longspruce stick with a short taper at either end (Thieme 1997, 1999). Located in north central Germany and excavated in 1952 and again inthe 1970s, the site of Salzgitter-Lebenstedt has been placed at theGlinde Interstadial (c. 48-55 000 years ago). Among the artefactsrecovered in the 1952 excavation were 25 bone and antler items. A dozenof these were mammoth ribs with one or two ends slightly modified tosimple chisel-like or spatulate spatulate/spat��u��late/ (spach��u-lat)1. having a flat blunt end.2. to mix or manipulate with a spatula.3. forms (e.g. Figure 4). These rangedbetween 40 and 70 cm in length. Another item was a portion of reindeer(caribou) antler, 55 cm in length, also displaying a crudely modified,wedge shaped tip (Tode 1982; Gaudzinski 1999). The site of Predmosti, located in the Czech Republic, was occupiedmultiple times during the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic periods,although the major occupation(s) appears to have been UpperPalaeolithic. Among the artefacts recovered in Upper Palaeolithiccontexts were fifty or so bone tools (Valoch 1982). Among these areseveral fragments of modified mammoth rib that closely resemble the moreintact examples recovered from Salzgitter-Lebenstedt (Valoch 1982:69).There are also several end fragments of tools which had been modifiedfrom mammoth ribs to have flattish chisel-shaped tips. Several mammoth ribs, approximately 50 cm in length, were recoveredin the early 1900s from a gravel pit near Duisberg, Germany. Based ontheir geologic context they are at least pre-Holocene in age (Tromnau1982:198, Figure 1). The site of Bilzingsleben, dated to 350-420 000 BP, is located ineastern Germany. Among the items recovered are a relatively large numberof bone tools and several wood ones (Mania et al. 1999; Mania 1995;Mania et al. 1994). The researchers do not provide specific descriptionsor illustrations of individual artefacts, but they do carry out ageneral classification of tool forms (if not functions). Among thewooden items recovered they describe "long rod-like tools" andamong the bone tools they include a category of "dagger-liketools", which were formed from split bison and rhinoceros rhinoceros,massive hoofed mammal of Africa, India, and SE Asia, characterized by a snout with one or two horns. The rhinoceros family, along with the horse and tapir families, forms the order of odd-toed hoofed mammals. ulnae andinclude a "grip-like part" and a pointed tip. While thesedescriptions are unsatisfactory for comparison purposes here, it wouldbe interesting to examine these items with the bark peelerinterpretation in mind. We have also noted several Upper Palaeolithic bone artefacts onexhibit in the Musee National de Prehistoire in Les Eyzies, France.These are, by tradition, referred to as 'lissoirs' (hidesmoothers), but closely resemble the several ethnographic examples ofbark peelers described above. The relatively complete ones range inlength between 25 and 35 centimetres. The examples we have included herecome from the French sites of Pech For the mythical creature, see Pech (mythology). For the fictional creature, see Pech (Dungeons & Dragons). For the European Parliament committee see Committee on FisheriesThe Pech de la Boissiere and Laugerie HauteEst (Figure 5). [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] Tree species available during the European Palaeolithic Pollen records that extend back into the Middle Palaeolithic inEurope are few and far between. There are, however, several long recordsthat have provided data on the Late Pleistocene in Western Europe. Theseinclude the Grande Pile peat bog in north-east France (Woillard 1978; J.Guiot et al. 1989; Pons et al. 1992; de Beaulieu & Reille 1992),Bouchct (Reille & de Beaulieu 1990) and Ribains (de Beaulieu &Reille 1992) in the Massif Central of France, and Les Echets in theRhone Valley near Lyons, France (de Beaulieu & Reille 1984; J. Guiotet al. 1989; Pons et al. 1992). While throughout the Palaeolithic, climatic variability oftenresulted in extremes of variability in the overall presence or absenceof trees and the relative abundance of different tree species, pollenrecords from the Late Pleistocene indicate that during this period(130-35 000 BP) there were always a number of available species of treeswhose inner bark has been exploited by more recent groups. During colder, drier climatic periods when grasses and shrubs werethe dominant vegetation, of the tree species that were present, pine wasdominant. There were also some spruce and juniper, deciduous specieslike birch and willow, and lesser quantities of other conifer anddeciduous species. During these periods when a more steppic biome biomeLargest geographic biotic unit, a major community of plants and animals with similar requirements of environmental conditions. It includes various communities and developmental stages of communities and is named for the dominant type of vegetation, such as grassland or wasdominant, trees would likely have been most common in river valleys. During the warmer and wetter periods, a mixed forest landscape wasdominant in more southerly latitudes and boreal bo��re��al?adj.1. Of or relating to the north; northern.2. Of or concerning the north wind.3. Boreal forests to the north.The mixed forests included oak, hazel, birch, pine, spruce, hornbeam hornbeamor ironwood,name in North America for two groups of trees of the family Betulaceae (birch family), native to the eastern half of the continent. Carpinus caroliniana, also called blue beech and water beech, has smooth gray bark. ,alder, elm, ash, and other less common species, both conifer andbroad-leaved plants. The boreal forest would have included mainly pine,spruce, fir, juniper, birch, and willow species. Alternative interpretations of the Palaeolithic artefacts Two alternative interpretations have been suggested for some of theartefacts recovered from Palaeolithic sites. One of these,'throwing stick', was suggested as a potential use for thewooden item recovered from Schoningen (Thieme 1997). We would argue thatthis particular artefact See artifact. is too long (at 78cm) to be an effectivethrowing stick A survey of the throwing sticks held it1 the collections at theAmerican Museum of Natural History provides a range in lengths of 23cmto 74cm, with an average of 49cm. While there are notable exceptions(such as the Australian boomerang and throwing sticks used by somecultures in games), in general, throwing sticks are shorter, heaviersticks that are not sharpened at the ends and a re, in fact, usuallyrather blunt. The other Palaeolithic artefacts that we have mentioned dofall well within the range of lengths for throwing sticks, but, unlikethrowing sticks, have all been sharpened to some degree at one or bothends and are all flattish and rather light to he effective as thrownweapons. The second possible interpretation is that these tools were diggingsticks. This is, in our opinion, a more viable alternative than thefirst one. There are, however, notable differences in the ethnographicrecord between typical digging sticks and the bark peelers for which wehave information. Digging sticks seem to be universally made of wood andare typically long, around a metre in length and often longer (e.g. Lee1979:123-24; Marshall 1976:99-100; Teit 1909:513). That they aretypically made of wood may be, in part, because other materials (likeantler) are not available in suitable lengths. The Schoningen artefactis made of wood (as were some ethnographic bark peelers), and isslightly longer than typical bark peelers and, so, may in fact be adigging stick. Currently the only available analytical approaches that mightindicate function for bone, antler, or wood tools would be residueanalysis and use-wear analysis. However, considering the extreme ages ofthese Palaeolithic tools, the likelihood that any relevant residueswould have survived seems remote at best. Some use-wear studies havebeen done with prehistoric tools of these materials with some success(e.g. LeMoine 1995). But LeMoine found that, even with assemblages ofbone and ivory tools that were relatively recent (from Arctic sites withdirect ties to specific historical groups), preservation of identifiableuse-wear patterns was poor. Of the several site assemblages, all more orless contemporary, the one that was the best preserved still had ause-wear destruction rate of about 50 per cent. For items that are inthe tens of thousands of years old, any wear patterns that might beobservable must be considered unreliable. Summary and implications for Palaeolithic research Traditionally, general models of Palaeolithic subsistence havestressed the importance of animals, especially large mammals, in humandiets. Some recent isotopic studies have supported this view for theMiddle Palaeolithic in particular (e.g. Richards et al 2000; Bocherens1999). Even with respect to the Upper Palaeolithic, for which theevidence suggests a broadening of subsistence behaviours, large mammalsare still seen as the dominant source of food. Evidence for the use ofplant foods is scarce, either because they were a relatively minordietary component or else because their remains simply do not survivewell. However, it must be generally accepted that plants would haveplayed some role in human diets throughout the Palaeolithic periods, andperhaps a critical caloric caloric/ca��lo��ric/ (kah-lor��ik) pertaining to heat or to calories. ca��lor��icadj.1. Of or relating to calories.2. Of or relating to heat. role. Inner bark is an easily obtained, nutritious resource, availablespecifically during the critical spring season. It requires little inthe way of preplanning in order to exploit and, while it does requirespecific tools, these are very simple in form and relatively easy tomake. Considering how common the uses of inner and outer bark areethnographically, it seems reasonable that the collection of the formerfor food and the latter for a construction material (and possiblymedicine) would also have been common in the Palaeolithic. This isespecially so for inner bark during colder climatic episodes when otherpotential food plants would have been less abundant and conifers weremore abundant. It is also reasonable to expect to find artefacts inPalaeolithic sites that closely resemble the tools used by modern andmore recent prehistoric people for removing the bark from trees. Theonly potential limitation on the exploitation of this resource wouldhave been the availability of suitable tree species, which does notappear to have been an issue in Palaeolithic Western Europe.Table 1. Tree species exploited in North AmericaBlack Pine Dougl. Pinus contortaYellow Pine Lawson Pinus ponderosaJack Pine Lamb Pinus banksianaNut Pine Engelm Pinus albicaulusSitka Spruce Bongard Picea sitchensisDouglas Fir, Mirbel (Franco) Pseudotsuga menziesiiWestern Hemlock Raf. (Sarg.) Tsuga heterophyllaEastern Hemlock L. (Carr.) Tsuga canadensisBalsam Fir L. (Miller) Abies balsameaCottonwood Torr. & Gray Populus trichocarpaBalsam Poplar L Populus balsamiferaTrembling Aspen L. Populus tremuloidesLarge-Toothed Aspen Michx. Populus grandidentataRed Alder Bongard Alnus rubraPaper Birch Marsh Betula papyriferaScrub Birch Betula glandulosa.Red Cedar D. Don Thuja plicataTable 2Cambium of Western Hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) (/100g fresh weight)103 kcal. 202mg calcium70.0g water 11.6mg magnesium2.3g protein 1.6mg zinc0.6g fat 2.5mg iron25.9g carbohydrates 1.1g ash (Kuhnlein & Turner 1996)Inner bark of Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) (/100g fresh weight)27 kcal 1.5g crude fibre 10.0mg calcium92.0g water 0.8g ash 39.0mg phosphorus0.2g protein 0.3mg iron 8.0mg magnesium0.5g fat 0.4mg copper 0.1mg manganese6.3g carbohydrates 0.4mg zinc (Kuhnlein & Turner 1996)Inner bark of Scrub Birch (Betula glandulosa) (/100g fresh weight)43.0g water 14.0g carbohydrates3.1g protein 11.0mg vitamin C (Kuhnlein & Turner 1996)Inner bark of Black or Scrub Pine (Pinus contorta)1.1% reducing sugar 2.4% protein2.1% non-reducing sugar 2.3% ash23.7% hemicellulose (Yanovsky & Kingsbury 1938) Acknowledgements The authors would like to extend their gratitude to the collectionsstaff at the Royal British Columbia Museum The Royal British Columbia Museum is a historical museum located in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. It was given the "Royal" title upon a visit by Queen Elizabeth II in 1986.The museum is one of the centrepieces of Victoria's tourist industry. , Victoria for allowing accessto the bark peelers in their collections, and to the collections staffof the Musee Nationale de Prehistoire in Les Eyzies de Tayac, France forallowing us to include images of artefacts in their collections. Inparticular a thanks is extended to Philippe Jugie of the Museum at LesEyzies for providing such excellent photos of these images. SabineGaudzinski kindly allowed us to use her figures of bone tools fromSalzgitter-Lebenstedt. A thank you also to one of the anonymousreviewers for helping to clarify the niceties of tree anatomy and itsterminology. References AIRAKSINEN, M.M., P. PEURA, L. ALA-Foss-SALOKANGAS, S. ANTERE, J.LUKKARINEN, M. SAIKKONEN & F. STENBACK. 1986. Toxicity of PlantMaterial Used as Emergency Food During Famines in Finland. 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(Scots Pine) Inner Bark by Sami Peoplein Northern Sweden, Related to Cultural and Ecological Factors.Vegetational History and Archaeobotany 9:99-109 Dennis M. Sandgathe * (1) & Brian Hayden (*) * Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby,British Columbia. VSA-1S6, Canada 1 (Email: dmsandga@sfu.ca)