Down, but not out: biological evidence for complex economic organization in Lincoln in the late 4th century.

Down, but not out: biological evidence for complex economic organization in Lincoln in the late 4th century. As a result of major archaeological investigations in recent years,it has become apparent that in the early 3rd century changing economiccircumstances in the Roman empire caused a check in the growth of townsin Britain (Millett 1990: 134-7). The evidence suggests a decline inmanufacturing activity and interprovincial trade. Few public buildingswere erected after the early 3rd century and a reduction in the areasettled, especially in London, is indicated by the accumulation ofmaterial, often referred to as 'dark earth', over earlierbuildings (Ottaway 1993: 112-17; Yule 1990).The later 3rd century and much of the 4th was a time of prosperity inRoman Britain Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410. The Romans referred to their province as Britannia. , but the role of towns is thought to have been primarilyrelated to the administrative, political and ceremonial functions of theRoman state. The urban population was probably dominated by governmentofficials who lived in the well-appointed town houses for which there isevidence in most towns, including Lincoln (Jones 1993). Towards the endof the 4th century, however, change in the urban order, traditionallylinked to economic recession (Esmonde Cleary 1989: 130-34), manifesteditself in declining populations and poorer standards of maintenance ofpublic facilities.Although there is now an element of consensus concerning the broadoutlines of urban development in late Roman Britain, there are manyaspects that are poorly understood. In particular, one might ask,firstly, did change in the early 3rd century affect the variouscomponents of the urban economy equally? Secondly, how quickly did theurban economy collapse in the late 4th century? Did the process begin inthe mid 4th century or only in the last decade or so? In consideringboth problems, it is necessary to allow not only for differences betweentowns, but for a different picture to emerge from different categoriesof evidence, reflecting asynchronous Refers to events that are not synchronized, or coordinated, in time. The following are considered asynchronous operations. The interval between transmitting A and B is not the same as between B and C. The ability to initiate a transmission at either end. decline in various economicactivities and processes.Environmental archaeology is a very powerful, but greatly under-used,tool for investigating socio-economic processes, representing aspects oflife not illuminated by structural and artefactual adj. 1. of or pertaining to an artefact.2. made by human actions.Adj. 1. artefactual - of or relating to artifactsartifactual evidence. This papersummarizes some important results of recent analyses of vertebrate vertebrate,any animal having a backbone or spinal column. Verbrates can be traced back to the Silurian period. In the adults of nearly all forms the backbone consists of a series of vertebrae. All vertebrates belong to the subphylum Vertebrata of the phylum Chordata. andinvertebrate invertebrate(ĭn'vûr`təbrət, –brāt'), any animal lacking a backbone. The invertebrates include the tunicates and lancelets of phylum Chordata, as well as all animal phyla other than Chordata. remains from the waterfront excavations in Lincoln andshows how they present new evidence to understanding its economy andsociety in the late Roman period. We argue that, in this case,biological remains are as appropriate a measure of economic (and byimplication social) organization as structures and artefacts.Studies of a series of assemblages of vertebrate and invertebrateremains from the City of Lincoln Waterfront excavations, carried out byCity of Lincoln Archaeological Unit in the late 1980s (Chitwood 1989;Donel 1989; Donel & Jarvis 1990; Williams 1989), lead Dobney andKenward to question traditional views of late Roman Britain. Excavationsof large late Roman dump deposits at the Waterside North West site(WNW WNWabbr.west-northwestNoun 1. WNW - the compass point midway between west and northwestwest northwest 88, [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED], in particular, produced thelargest vertebrate assemblage of late Roman date so far published fromBritain (Dobney et al. 1996b), as well as invertebrate, principallybeetle, assemblages of exceptional importance (Carrott et al. 1995b).Evidence for dumping activity from the 3rd to the late 4th centuriesAD was present at all the sites excavated at waterside, Lincoln. Thisdumping appeared to be linked to a series of surfaces, also constructedduring this period, which probably provided access to the river fromSaltergate to the north and the High street to the west. The surfacesfound at WN87, WO89, WF89 and WW89 [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED]indicated that the course of the river was purposely being moved furthersouth from its former bank (Chitwood et al. 1989; Donel & Jarvis1990). Each successive surface was lengthened over newly reclaimed landas the course of the river was moved.Preliminary analysis of the pottery from these dump layers andsurfaces has provided dates ranging from the 3rd to the late 4thcenturies. There is no indication from the preliminary study of anyserious contamination and at present there is no reason to believe thatthese dump deposits and surfaces are anything but well-dated andwell-stratified. Further dating information has been provided by thepreliminary identifications of coins recovered from both the dump layersand the surfaces. The great majority of the coins recovered at WatersideNorth West were in the late Roman dumps, and ranged in date from themid/late 3rd to the late 4th century, the greater number being of thelatter date (Mann 1990). This is also reflected in the range of coinsidentified from WF98. Dating evidence from the site of WNW88 does,however, show a discrepancy between ceramic and numismatic nu��mis��mat��ic?adj.1. Of or relating to coins or currency.2. Of or relating to numismatics.[French numismatique, from Late Latin numisma, numismat-, dating ofsome of the dump layers (apparently of late 4th-century date) which areassociated with coins dating from the mid 4th century (Fryer,unpublished report).Only by detailed comparative analysis of finds assemblages from allthe Waterfront sites, as well as those from other Roman sites inLincoln, will further refinement of the dating framework for theseWaterfront deposits be possible. However, a special problem lies in thefact that these deposits contain a rich and diverse range of artefactswhich, although not unique to Lincoln, have rarely been seen elsewhere(Fryer, unpublished report). What is clear from preliminary work is thatpottery and coins indicate a late Roman date (i.e. 4th century) for thegreat majority of the dateable artefacts. In view of the excellentpreservation of the vertebrate remains (which show little evidence ofcolour variation or of the presence of 'battered'/roundedfragments, traditionally taken to indicate the presence of older,reworked material), and in the absence of any evidence to the contrary,it can be assumed that the biological remains, which form the basis ofthis paper, are also of late Roman date.The general nature of the sediment matrix of these waterfrontdeposits and their included biota biota/bi��o��ta/ (bi-o��tah) all the living organisms of a particular area; the combined flora and fauna of a region. bi��o��tan.The flora and fauna of a region. show that waste from a wide range ofhuman activities was incorporated, the invertebrate remains (Carrott etal. 1995b) indicating dumping into still or sluggish water; the mineralcomponent of the deposits (sandy clay silts) probably represents, atleast in part, river silt. On the basis of the insects, many of thedumps included stable manure (cf. Kenward & Hall 1997), whilstprimary butchery waste and debris from secondary processing of bone(mainly from cattle) was also present in large quantities. The rarity ofpuparia of carrion-feeding flies, and of beetles likely to be associatedwith exposed knackers' waste, in the bone-rich deposits, togetherwith the quite superb preservation of the bone and paucity of marks leftby dog-gnawing, imply that the bones were systematically dumped into theriverside while still quite fresh, and quickly covered or submerged.An interesting observation is the rather low frequencies of fouldecomposer de��com��pos��er?n.An organism, often a bacterium or fungus, that feeds on and breaks down dead plant or animal matter, thus making organic nutrients available to the ecosystem.decomposer?See detritivore. beetles from some of the otherwise typical stable-manuresuites. One explanation may be that, instead of stable manure, these infact represent the gut contents of large ruminants, an intriguingpossibility since the butchering and processing of large numbers ofcattle are attested to in the same deposits. Alternatively, however, andmore probably, stables may have been frequently cleaned, waste beingdumped straight into the river so that few insects could colonize col��o��nize?v. col��o��nized, col��o��niz��ing, col��o��niz��esv.tr.1. To form or establish a colony or colonies in.2. To migrate to and settle in; occupy as a colony.3. . Ineither case, there is an implication of ordered waste disposal and thusof disciplined organization of the urban community. Future investigationof archaeobotanical remains from the waterfront excavations may clarifythis point to some extent.In common with those from most Roman sites in England, the vertebrateassemblage from the Lincoln waterfront was dominated by the bones offully adult cattle. This kind of age profile is traditionallyinterpreted as showing the presence of multi-purpose beasts, usedprimarily for traction, which were slaughtered when no longer of use asdraught animals. Their use for traction at Lincoln is strongly suggestedby the evidence of a range of joint disorders, and perhaps by anomalousperforations on the back of the skull which are described elsewhere(Brothwell et al. 1996; Dobney et al. 1996h). These cattle remainsshowed comprehensive butchery of almost every bone. Butchery had beenvery systematic and organized, but subjectively there were subtledifferences in butchery style between layers. One can almost envisagedifferent dumps representing different butchers working to the samegeneral specification. Many bones had been split, a phenomenoninterpreted as indicating marrow extraction, and many of the cattlemandibles showed a characteristic pattern of scorching scorch?v. scorched, scorch��ing, scorch��esv.tr.1. To burn superficially so as to discolor or damage the texture of. See Synonyms at burn1.2. [ILLUSTRATION FORFIGURE 2 OMITTED], also interpreted as the result of marrow fatextraction (Dobney et al. 1996b: 26). In addition, numerous cattlescapulae showed characteristic 'hook' damage and butcherybelieved to indicate the curing of shoulders of beef [ILLUSTRATION FORFIGURE 3 OMITTED]. These are all regarded as characteristically Romanpractices, widely noted elsewhere in Britain and mainland Europe(Lauwerier 1988; Levitan 1989; Maltby 1984; O'Connor 1988).Evidence that waste from a variety of sources - different butchersand various ancillary tradesmen - was brought together in one placeindicates organized collection of butchers' waste. Was this justthe town dump, or was it a deliberate and organized attempt toconsolidate the northern bank of the waterfront? Putative flood silts ona late Roman road surface at another Waterfront site (Woolworth'sBasement, WO89) offer tantalizing tan��ta��lize?tr.v. tan��ta��lized, tan��ta��liz��ing, tan��ta��liz��esTo excite (another) by exposing something desirable while keeping it out of reach. evidence as to why a flood defence mayhave been needed. What appeared to be natural-death assemblages of verysmall fish were recorded from both WO89 and WNW88, but it is arguablewhether these represent corroborative cor��rob��o��rate?tr.v. cor��rob��o��rat��ed, cor��rob��o��rat��ing, cor��rob��o��ratesTo strengthen or support with other evidence; make more certain. See Synonyms at confirm. evidence of flood events; otherexplanations for their presence include the disposal of gut contents oflarger fish, pelleting birds, or accidental trapping in pools createdduring dumping. It seems unlikely that they were the remains of garum,but some other late Roman deposits at the WNW site producedconcentrations of sandeel (Ammodytes sp.) remains, which almostcertainly do represent the production of fish sauce fish saucen.See nuoc mam. . Another Late Romanexample of a deposit of small fish remains interpreted as spoiled garumhas been found in York (Jones 1988). It has been suggested that thistypically Roman sauce was originally imported to Britain, but that whencontinental trade declined a continuing taste for traditional colonialdelicacies stimulated local production (Jones 1988); garum also seems tohave been produced in London [Bateman & Locker 1982).The evidence from the Late Roman vertebrate remains implies aconsiderable degree of social organization, and probably communitycontrol of at least some aspect of victualling; the population ofLincoln at this stage must have been of considerable size in view of theimplied scale of the provisioning exercise (at least 150 beasts wererepresented). In this respect the records of grain pests and otherspecies generally dependent upon artificial habitats (synanthropes) aresignificant. A range of such insects, which are unlikely to survive forlong in the absence of a developed socio-economic structure, waspresent. The grain pests indicate centralized storage, and the widerange of grain and stored products pests strongly suggest the presenceof temperature-regulated buildings of reasonable quality. From'late' 4th-century layers, such species included numerousOryzaephilus surinamensis [Linnaeus), Cryptolestes ferrugineus(Stephens), Sitophilus granarius (Linnaeus), Tribolium castaneum(Herbst) and Palorus ratzeburgi (Wissmann), together with smallernumbers of Stegobium paniceum (Linnaeus) and Tenebroides mauritanicus(Linnaeus). O. surinamensis, C. ferrugineus, T. castaneum, P. ratzeburgiand S. granarius were all also recorded from deposits dated to the'late to very late' 4th century. The oriental cockroach cockroachor roach,name applied to approximately 3,500 species of flat-bodied, oval insects forming the order Blattodea. Cockroaches have long antennae, long legs adapted to running, and a flat extension of the upper body wall that conceals the Blattaorientalis Linnaeus (recorded from a single late 4th-century context)would almost certainly have required heated buildings, too. The presenceof diverse groups of decomposers and synanthropes is considered to implythe continuing vitality of the Roman socio-economic system. One contextfor centralized grain storage may be found in a role for Lincoln as afocus for the collection of taxes levied in kind, a persistent featureof the Roman revenue system (although Martin Millett Martin John Millett BA, DPhil, FSA (born 30 September 1955) is currently the Laurence Professor of Classical Archaeology at the Faculty of Classics, University of Cambridge. (in litt.) hassuggested that there is some evidence for a return to cash taxation inthe later 4th century; Jones 1974).The vertebrate and insect material from late Roman contexts atLincoln is generally similar to earlier Roman assemblages. Thisimmediately leads one to address the problem of how significant the3rd-century changes in the urban economy were. Perhaps the mostconvincing evidence for continuity in the conduct of certain aspects isto be found in the invertebrate evidence. Some of the insects imply thepresence of reasonably high-quality buildings (some of which must havebeen heated to allow the long-term survival of colonies of cockroaches).The variety and quantity of the grain-pest species, indicatinglarge-scale grain storage in the vicinity, implies unchangedsocioeconomic organization over a long period. Had there been a sharpdecline in urban fortunes in the 3rd century, it is unlikely that theseinsects would have survived; they would have needed to be re-importedfrom elsewhere by vigorous long-distance trade, just as they werebrought during the 1st century. Corroborative evidence from thevertebrate remains can be found in the form of remains of black rat black ratsee black rat. (Rattus rattus Noun 1. Rattus rattus - common household pest originally from Asia that has spread worldwideblack rat, roof ratrat - any of various long-tailed rodents similar to but larger than a mouse Linnaeus), the few bones recovered from the waterfrontdeposits adding to the corpus of Roman records from London and York(O'Connor 1991; Rackham 1979; 1980). Black rat is, in northwestEurope, very strongly dependent upon long-lived urban habitats and wouldhave disappeared quickly once these artificial conditions ceased toexist. Black rats could have been reintroduced to Britain in the 4thcentury after a loss of habitat in a period of urban decline in the 3rdcentury, but the simplest explanation is the continuing existence of ahighly organized urban settlement. Similarly, the characteristicprocessing of large quantities of cattle seems more likely to representan unbroken tradition than the redevelopment or re-introduction of anidentical range of practices. The changing character of the urbaneconomy in the 3rd century is, from the point of view of environmentalarchaeology (and perhaps thus in terms of human experience), asuperficial phenomenon.At this point one might ask whether these biological remains fromLincoln could have been redeposited wholesale from earlier deposits,rather than representing conditions in the 4th century? Nothing in theinvertebrate remains suggests this; where there were comminuted comminuted/com��mi��nut��ed/ (kom��in-ldbomact?id) broken or crushed into small pieces, as a comminuted fracture. com��mi��nut��edadj.Broken into fragments. Used of a fractured bone. fossils,for example, they were amongst the 'outdoor' forms rather thanthe synanthropes, the opposite of what would be predicted had the latterbeen dug up from old deposits and dumped into water. Similarly, thebones were almost all in excellent condition, lacking thecharacteristically eroded fraction typical of redeposited material. Theartefacts, too, gave no reason to suspect redeposition Noun 1. redeposition - deposition from one deposit to anotherdeposition, deposit - the natural process of laying down a deposit of something .The two independent lines of investigation, using invertebrate andvertebrate remains, lead persuasively to the same conclusion. Someaspects, at least, of the economic and social organization of RomanLincoln remained unaltered by the changes of the 3rd century andpersisted until late in the 4th. This picture is perhaps supported byevidence from Skeldergate Roman Well at York (Hall et al. 1980). Thewell appears to have been back-filled in the 4th century, at least theupper fills apparently dating to the late 4th. A wide range ofsynanthropic beetles, including the grain pests, was present.Unfortunately, while these were probably dumped at about the same timeas the rest of the fills, it is just possible that they entered the wellmuch earlier. It is notable that the same well contained remains ofblack rat. Further hints of continued organization were provided by theassessment of a large group of animal bones dated to after c. 360 fromthe Wellington Row site in the Colonia at York, an assemblage dominatedby systematically butchered and highly fragmented cattle bones (Carrottet al. 1995a). In a unique late Roman military context,bioarchaeological data from the signal station at Filey, north Yorkshire North Yorkshire,county (1991 pop. 698,800), 3,209 sq mi (8,313 sq km), N England. The county comprises the districts of Craven, Hambleton, Harrogate, Richmondshire, Ryedale, Scarborough, Selby, and York. (Dobney et al. 1996a) also show an efficient economic system at work ata site occupied in the last two decades of the 4th century. Thevertebrate remains from this site provide clear evidence for systematicprovisioning from a regional base. The bones represent either dressedcarcases or selected joints (or both), mainly of sheep and pig. Despiteits immediate proximity to the coast, fish were barely utilised, and itis suggested that the numerous oysters may not have been availablelocally, but that they had been brought either from the southeast ofEngland or from the Firth of Forth Noun 1. Firth of Forth - a large firth on the east coast of Scotland and the estuary of the Forth River; location of EdinburghScotland - one of the four countries that make up the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland; located on the northern part (Jessica Winder pers. comm.); thepast distribution of oyster beds is, however, a matter requiring urgentinvestigation.The bioarchaeological evidence for a well-organized Roman economy, inmany ways little changed from that of the 1st and 2nd centuries,persisting into the late 4th century in at least parts of Britain isbecoming irresistible. However, what cannot be determined at present iswhether a high level of organization was the norm, or whether there waslocal variation between and even within towns. Richard Reece (in litt.)has posited that late Roman town life, while retaining somecharacteristics of the earlier period, may in fact have been a matter oflocalized cultural survival in towns and other sites controlled by them,against the background of very different developments whether simplyeconomic or a result of the arrival of new waves of immigrants - in thesurrounding countryside. Our observations at Lincoln and Filey arecertainly not incompatible with such viewpoints. Clearly everyopportunity should be taken to obtain a full sequence of biologicalevidence from a wide range of sites of early 3rd- to early 5th-centurydate from throughout Britain in order to trace the evolution of socialand economic processes through this crucial period.Acknowledgements. The authors are grateful to the following for theirassistance during the analytical project and the preparation of thispaper: Alan Vince and Mick Jones (City of Lincoln Archaeology Unit);Chris Scull (Central Archaeology Service of English Heritage English Heritage is a non-departmental public body of the United Kingdom government (Department for Culture, Media and Sport) with a broad remit of managing the historic environment of England. It was set up under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983. ); DeborahJaques, Brian Irving, John Irving, John,1942–, American writer, b. Exeter, N.H. His mixture of wild plot strategies and eccentric characters brought him to wide attention with his fourth novel, The World According to Garp (1978). Carrott, Michael Issitt, Frances Large andBarrie McKenna (Environmental Archaeology Unit/Palaeoecology ResearchServices, York); Paul Stokes and Louisa Gidney (University of Durham (body, education) University of Durham - A busy research and teaching community in the historic cathedral city of Durham, UK (population 61000). Its work covers key branches of science and technology and traditional areas of scholarship. );James Greig (University of Birmingham Due to Birmingham's role as a centre of light engineering, the university traditionally had a special focus on science, engineering and commerce, as well as coal mining. It now teaches a full range of academic subjects and has five-star rating for teaching and research in several ); Jessica Winder (Institute ofTerrestrial Ecology The introduction to this January 2007 provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter.Please help [ improve the introduction] to meet Wikipedia's layout standards. You can discuss the issue on the talk page. , Wareham); and Peter Skidmore. KD and HK carried outthis project with the support of the Ancient Monuments Laboratory of EH.Martin Millett and Richard Reece kindly read a late draft of this paperand offered much-welcomed constructive comment.ReferencesBATEMAN, N. & A. LOCKER. 1982. The sauce of the Thames, TheLondon Archaeologist 4(8): 204-7.BROTHWELL, D., K. DOBNEY & A. ERVYNCK. 1996. On the causes ofperforations in archaeological domestic cattle skulls, InternationalJournal of Osteology osteology/os��te��ol��o��gy/ (os?te-ol��ah-je) scientific study of the bones. os��te��ol��o��gyn.The branch of anatomy that deals with the structure and function of bones. 6: 471-87.CARROTT, J., K. DOBNEY, A, HALL, M. ISSITT, D. JAQUES, C. JOHNSTONE,H. KENWARD, F. LARGE, B. MCKENNA & A. MILLES. 1995a. 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Banes from the General Accident Site,Tanner Row, The Archaeology of York 15(2): 61-136. London: Council forBritish Archaeology.1991. On the lack of bones of the ship rat Rattus rattus from DarkAge York, Journal of Zoology The Journal of Zoology (not to be confused with a different journal called Zoology) is a scientific journal concerning zoology, the study of animals. It was founded in 1830 by the Zoological Society of London. External linkshttp://www.cambridge. , London 224: 318-20.OTTAWAY, P. 1993. Roman York. London: Batsford.RACKHAM, D.J. 1979. Rattus rattus, The introduction of the black ratinto Britain, Antiquity 53: 112-20.1980. Note on black rat remains from the well. pp. 142-3 in A.R.Hall,H.K. Kenward & D. Williams, Environmental evidence from Romandeposits in Skeldergate, The Archaeology of York 14(3): 101-58. London:Council for British Archaeology.WILLIAMS, V. 1989. Finds from the Waterside. in Jones (ed.): 8-11.YULE, B. 1990. The dark earth and late Roman London Londinium redirects here, for other uses see Londinium (disambiguation)This article covers the history of London during the Roman period from around 47 AD when the Roman city of Londinium , Antiquity 64:620-28.