Early agriculture in southeast Asia: phytolith evidence from the Bang Pakong Valley, Thailand.

Early agriculture in southeast Asia: phytolith evidence from the Bang Pakong Valley, Thailand. Phytoliths -- the microscopic opal silica bodies inside plant tissuethat often survive well in archaeological deposits -- are becoming alarger part of the world of human palaeobotany. They give a new view ofearly rice in southeast Asia.IntroductionIn 1989 researchers working in the region of Khok Phanom Di, a4000-year-old site in the Bang Pakong Valley, identified evidence ofcultural burning and possibly early agriculture in the 5th millennium BCin sediment cores (FIGURE 1; Maloney et al. 1989). Phytolith phy��to��lith?n.A minute particle formed of mineral matter by a living plant and fossilized in rock. analysis ofthese same cores provides a more detailed record of agriculture andgrass weeds, and indicates that cultural modification of the environmentmay have begun even earlier.Despite previous claims for early rice agricultural development inThailand (Gorman 1973; 1977), abundant early evidence from southeasternChina pre-dates Thai archaeological sites (An 1989; Yan 1991). Highamand co-workers investigated the coastal region of Thailand, particularlythe fresh-water swamp zone, and the site of Khok Phanom Di for possibleearly agricultural development (Higham et al. 1992; Higham & Maloney1989). While the site was first occupied at the beginning of the 2ndmillennium BC, late relative to the beginnings of agriculturaldevelopment (Higham & Bannanurag 1990), pollen cores from adjacentfields document human and natural environments back to the 6thmillennium BC (Maloney 1992c). One core, KL2, showed several intensecharcoal peaks pre-dating the site's occupation (5278[+ or -]420 BC(OxA-1359) at 4-95 m, 4950[+ or -]390 BC (OXA-1357) at 3.50-3.54 m).Slightly later, charcoal peaks are associated with weeds indicative ofrice field cultivation (2.30 m, c. 4350[+ or -]375 BC (OxA-1356)). Whilerice is not directly identifiable from pollen data, the decline inmangrove mangrove,large tropical evergreen tree, genus Rhizophora, that grows on muddy tidal flats and along protected ocean shorelines. Mangroves are most abundant in tropical Asia, Africa, and the islands of the SW Pacific. species, increase in burning and increase in rice field weedsstrongly suggest agriculture was practised in this region in the 5thmillennium BC (Maloney et al. 1989: 367).MethodsTwo cores, KL2 and BMR BMRbasal metabolic rate. BMRabbr.basal metabolic rateBMR,n See basal metabolic rate.BMRbasal metabolic rate. 2, from the Bang Pakong Valley were analysedfor phytoliths. Both were located 170-200 m north of the site of KhokPhanom Di, within 30 m of each other. The pollen, spore, charcoal andsediment records are discussed in detail by Maloney (1992a; 1992b;1992c; 1992e). The site is strategically located near the estuary of theBang Pakong River, has access to marine, mangrove, riverine riv��er��ine?adj.1. Relating to or resembling a river.2. Located on or inhabiting the banks of a river; riparian: "Members of a riverine tribe ... , fresh-waterswamp, and alluvial plain/grassland resources. The diversity andabundance of subsistence resources made this an advantageous nichethroughout the Holocene (Higham et al. 1992; Takaya 1979).Phytolith extraction from sediment samples followed standard methods(Piperno 1988). Soils were disaggregated in [Na.sub.2] C[O.sub.3]. A270-mesh sieve separated the sand fraction from the silts and clays.Clays were removed by gravity sedimentation, and the remaining siltswere then fractionated, also by differential gravity sedimentation. Theorganics were wet ashed from these fractions with KCl[O.sub.3](Schulze's solution). The phytoliths were floated (specific gravity[is less than] 2.3) on a density gradient of potassium and cadmiumiodide (specific gravity 2.35). Samples were washed in water, dried inacetone acetone(ăs`ĭtōn), dimethyl ketone(dīmĕth`əl kē`tōn), or 2-propanone(prō`pənōn), CH3COCH3 , and mounted in permount. Phytoliths were counted at 400x on anOlympus photomicroscope pho��to��mi��cro��scope?n.An instrument consisting of a microscope, camera apparatus, and light source used for making photomicrographs.pho while the permount was still fluid. Individualphytoliths were rotated to avoid confusion with similar two-dimensionalforms.Phytoliths were identified using modern reference material of over340 species, comprising most of the southeast Asian families known to bephytolith producers (after Piperno 1988), as well as many previouslyuntested Old World tropical taxa (Kealhofer & Piperno in press a). Amajor goal of this study was to retrieve and identify Oryza phytolithsfrom sediment cores.Nearly a century ago German botanists studying grass morphologyidentified distinctive Oryza glume phytoliths (Formanek 1899; Grob1896). Early archaeological applications include the identification ofsilicious remains of Oryza in Chinese Neolithic potsherds (Edman &Soderberg 1929). Studies in the 1960s also described these 'hollowswellings with acute tips' (Watanabe 1968), or short distinctivehair cells, from rice glumes.Comparative grass phytolith studies of both wild and domesticated do��mes��ti��cate?tr.v. do��mes��ti��cat��ed, do��mes��ti��cat��ing, do��mes��ti��cates1. To cause to feel comfortable at home; make domestic.2. To adopt or make fit for domestic use or life.3. a. grasses have revealed no redundant hair shapes in over 500 species oftropical American grasses (Piperno & Pearsall unpublished data),North American grasses (Brown 1984; Twiss et al. 1969; Twiss 1992),Canadian grasses (Blackman 1971), British grasses (Parry & Smithson1964; 1966), East African grasses (Palmer & Tucker 1981; 1983; 1985)or in over 100 species of Old World grasses most closely aligned withOryza (Pearsall et al. in press). Morphological studies also reveal noforms mistakable for rice bilobates and glume hair cells (Clifford &Watson 1977; Metcalfe 1960; Terrell & Wergin 1981).In identifying rice phytoliths, we relied in part on recent work byPearsall and co-workers (in press), describing the glume and leafphytoliths of the genus Oryza. We also independently analysed 50 speciesof Thai grasses, as well as multiple species and replicates of Oryza.Our analyses confirm that the phytoliths thought diagnostic of Oryza arevalid markers of rice. Additional Oryza specific (i.e. genus specific)phytoliths were revealed, including distinctive bilobates and flat lobedbodies from leaves, and 'bottle'-shapes and 2-celled hairsfrom glumes. Domesticated Oryza sativa and its putative wild ancestorOryza rufipogon/nivara can be statistically differentiated in largesamples (Pearsall et al. in press), but this is problematic in soilcontexts.Comparisons of phytoliths from the two series of Oryza, Latifoliaeand Sativae (Shastry & Sharma 1974), show they can be easilydifferentiated by the same generic indicators. The distinctive bilobateshapes vary in size, shape and proportion between species, as does thepresence of additional morphologically distinctive bilobates. TheSativae series (A genome) of Oryzeae includes the African and Asiandomesticated rices and their progenitors, as well as one New Worldspecies. Within this series, the African and southeast Asian rices canbe distinguished, by glume short hair morphology, leaf bulliform shape,and bilobate size and diversity. The rice phytoliths identified here allfall within the Sativae series of Oryza.Twenty-two samples from the KL2 core were analysed for phytoliths.All but one of these samples (from a depth of 2[center dot]28 m)contained quantifiable phytolith concentrations. Fourteen samples wereanalysed from the BMR2 core, and 13 of these contained phytoliths inquantifiable concentrations. Detailed summaries of both of thesesequences are published elsewhere (Kealhofer & Piperno in press b),and the focus here is on KL2 and its relevance for early agriculture inThailand The agriculture of Thailand, may be traced through historical, scientific, and social aspects which produced modern Thailand's unique approach to agriculture. Following the Neolithic Revolution after society in the area evolved from hunting and gathering, it developed through . The chronology is based on dates cited in Maloney (1992: 61)for KL2 samples.Pollen and phytolith quantification procedures often rely on influx,or pollen or phytolith concentrations per cubic centimetre of sediment.Terrestrial and alluvial environments are not continuously deposited,including not only periods of erosion, fut episodes of variabledeposition; these factors preclude a determination of influx, so thephytolith counts are presented as percentages per sample.The phytolith recordKL2 samples from 6.0 m to 4.35 m show forest grasses (Bambuseae), afew intrusive grasses (Panicoideae), palms, tress, and a smallpercentage of sedges (Cyperaceae) and Compositae. Fragments of Oryzaglumes occur at 5.0-5.1 m and at 4.5 m. Early in this period a shift inthe arboreal arborealpertaining to trees, treelike, tree-dwelling. assemblage (c. 5.45-5.50 m: decline in large smoothspheres, increase in large rough spheres) is correlated with a declinein charcoal, and most grass types (some Bambuseae increase). Themangrove forest dynamics of this shift are not clear from thephytoliths; arboreal pollen displays a peak in Rhizophora (65%), and adecline in Bruguiera (25%), suggesting a shift toward a slightly morecoastal and saline mangrove forest. After this short-lived (c. 100years?) perturbation perturbation(pŭr'tərbā`shən), in astronomy and physics, small force or other influence that modifies the otherwise simple motion of some object. The term is also used for the effect produced by the perturbation, e.g. , conditions soon return to the slightly drierBruguiera/Ceriops forest. Charcoal, not abundant in these phytolithsamples, is most common in this phase. Maloney (1992) found the largestpeak in burning at 4.95 m.At 4.45-4.35 m (c. 7000 BP) there is an abrupt change. The arborealindicators virtually disappear, while Bambusoideae (and someChloridoideae) grasses peak; then forest indicators recover immediately.At the same time a sharp increase in grasses is associated withdisturbance and agricultural fields (Panicoideae, includingAndropogoneae). Oryza glume fragments and leaf phytoliths present inthis and the subsequent level (4.17 m) are associated with the weedyagricultural grasses. The small sample size precludes the possibility ofdifferentiating their status as wild or domesticated Sativae. Theassociation of Oryza (Sativae series) with field weeds constitutesstrong circumstantial evidence that rice was cultivated. The presence offreshwater, necessary for rice, is confirmed by Podostemaceae, a mossfound in submerged riverine habitats.The Bambusoideae grass phytoliths (regular saddles), associated withthe earlier more saline phase, peak during the arboreal decline, andjust prior to a major shift. This may represent natural secondary growthafter forest destruction, as bamboos are common in many forest regrowth Re`growth´n. 1. The act of regrowing; a second or new growth.The regrowthof limbs which had been cut off.- A. B. Buckley. successions. Carbon is absent from both phytolith and pollen profiles atthe onset of this weedy interval. Evidence for human impact lasts untilabout 4.0 m, when Oryza disappears and the weedy indicators of humanactivity decline.Little evidence for human disturbance is found between 3.5 m and 1.9m. Arboreal indicators show little variation. Grass species'composition fluctuates, but without clear trends. A small percentage ofOryzeae and Panicoideae types are present, as in the deeper samples.These may mark the presence of human activity in the general area, orthey may be part of the riverine grass assemblage, where some low leveldisturbance would be expected (Maloney 1992d). Maloney's (1992d:66) carbonized particle count, relatively high during this phase, isintermediate between the early and later peaks.At 1.9 m (c. 5000 BP) agricultural weeds once again appear. This timethey dominate the assemblage, slightly after the increase in Gramineaein the pollen profile (c. 2[center dot]25 m). The pollen are likely tobe sampling a larger region than the phytoliths, suggesting adisturbance which intensifies in the immediate area around 5000 BP.Arboreal indicators decline simultaneously, subsequently contributingonly a very small percentage. A small peak in arboreal types, includingpalms, near 90 cm, correlates well with pollen evidence for a briefrecovery in Rhizophora. Oscillations in grass subfamilies (cf. crosses)possibly indicate shifts in the crops grown, as they do not correlatewith changes in the mangroves. The grass type (regular saddle)previously associated with arboreal shifts declines through to thepresent. Other Bambusoideae species appear just when crosses decrease,in the 50 cm sample. Carbonized particles in the pollen samples werevery high 2[center dot]0-1[center dot]0 m (25-50K; Maloney 1992d: 66).From 1[center dot]0 m, to the end of the sequence, Podostemaceae againconfirm freshwater in the immediate locale.Oryza phytoliths, common in the 1[center dot]25 m sample (before 1650BC, c. 2000 BC?), reach their highest percentage above 90 cm (after 1650BC; cf. 1670[+ or -]240 BC (OxA-1354)). In the greater quantity ofremains, and the size range of glume hair cells, these phytoliths areconsistent with those in domesticated Oryza sativa glume samples.The adjacent five-hectare site of Khok Phanom Di was first occupiedaround 2000 BC (Higham & Bannanurag 1990). Rice remains are foundthroughout the deposits (Higham 1989: 28; Thompson in press) as chaff chaff1. chaffed hay; called also chop.2. the winnowings from a threshing, consisting of awns, husks, glumes and other relatively indigestible materials. incultural layers, as chaff impressions on pottery, and in faecal matter.According to the phytolith sequence, agriculture was practisedextensively in the region prior to the occupation of Khok Phanom Di.With the reappearance of Oryza, intensification of rice cultivationcorrelates with site settlement. In the sediment cores, agriculturalactivity seems to begin about 1000 years before the occupation of KhokPhanom Di. The location of earlier habitation may have been affected byshifting sea levels, or simply related to demographic in-filling etageographically limited but productive zone.A characteristic of this assemblage is the apparent inversecorrelation of agricultural activities with burning in the phytolithsamples. Charcoal peaks identified by Maloney (1992) were not as evidentin the phytolith samples. The peaks correlate with higher percentages ofbamboos and lower percentages of agricultural weeds and rice, as ifburning was related not to agricultural techniques, but to othercultural activities (such as mangrove charcoal production?).The evidence for rice agriculture is not abundant until about 2000BC. The earlier Oryza phytoliths may be cultural, or may represent anatural occurrence of wild rice in fresh-water backswamps, associatedwith the river's flood regime. The contemporary increase inPanicoideae phytoliths may represent either other cultigens (e.g. milletor Job's Tears) or field weeds, but strongly suggests agriculturalactivities. No Panicoideae grasses are present within mangrove habitats;however they are found in back mangrove swamps (e.g. Eragrostis sp.).With increasing definition of grass species in the phytolith typecollections, individual species may he recognizable in the future.DiscussionThe phytolith record enlarges on the pollen and geomorphological ge��o��mor��phol��o��gy?n.The study of the evolution and configuration of landforms.geo��mor study of these same cores and supports Maloney and co-workers'(1989) interpretation: agriculture in coastal Thailand, where the backmangroves meet the alluvial plain, is indicated by field weeds insamples from the end of the 6th millennium BC. While we cannot, atpresent, identify domesticated rice, the complement of weedy speciesmirrors those found in the present rice agricultural regime.The phytolith record documents a pattern of vegetation changes, moredetailed and localized than in the pollen. The fingerprint of humanactivities, both from burning and agricultural weeds, is evident fromnear the beginning of this 8000-year-old sequence. The burning is morelikely related to fuel production and use of the mangroves than to earlyrice agriculture.Despite a suggested sea level transgression from 5000-4000 years ago(Geyh et al. 1979; Maloney 1992b), with an expansion of Rhizophoramangrove near the site, both cores reveal a shift toward intensivecultivation and a decline in mangrove indicators. Tectonic uplift,suggested by Pramojanee & Hastings (1983), perhaps raised thecoastal plain. A recent geemorphological study of the site indicates itwas c. 20 km inland on a stream levee levee(lĕv`ē)[Fr.,=raised], embankment built along a river to prevent flooding by high water. Levees are the oldest and the most extensively used method of flood control. in the 3rd millennium BC (Aitken1992).Two areas were potential centres for the development of riceagriculture in Thailand based on early dates, ecology, and the presenceof rice: the Khorat Plateau (White in press) and the coastal fresh-waterswamp zone (Higham et al. 1992). The Khorat Plateau, in northeasternThailand, falls within the region rice geneticists have suggested as the'homeland' of domesticated rice (Chang 1976) from thedistribution of genetic diversity and ecological factors. This'homeland' runs from coastal southeastern China to easternIndia, in the river basins that dissect the Himalayas.The larger region of central Thailand, outside the'homeland', does not provide abundant habitats for annualOryza species, although the confluence of alluvial plain withfresh-water swamp near Khok Phanom Di would have been suitable for earlyOryza annuals (Takaya 1979). In this zone, rivers commonly overflow inthe rainy season and then dry up. Importantly, the presence of rice7000-8000 years ago, even if not domesticated, shows wild precursorswere present, and available for human manipulation, in this region inthe early Holocene.ReferencesAITKEN, J.J. 1992. Archaeological sediments as artefacts. UnpublishedPh.D thesis, University of Otago The University of Otago (Māori: Te Whare Wānanga o Otāgo) in Dunedin is New Zealand's oldest university with over 20,000 students enrolled during 2006. , Dunedin.AN, Z. 1989. 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