Early evidence for chickens at Iron Age Kirikongo (c. AD 100-1450), Burkina Faso.

Early evidence for chickens at Iron Age Kirikongo (c. AD 100-1450), Burkina Faso. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Introduction The prehistoric adoption of the domestic chicken (Gallus Gallus(Caius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus) (găl`əs), d. 253 or 254, Roman emperor after 251. He fought in the eastern campaign that proved fatal to Decius. gallus)into societies throughout West Africa West AfricaA region of western Africa between the Sahara Desert and the Gulf of Guinea. It was largely controlled by colonial powers until the 20th century.West African adj. & n. is still poorly known almost twodecades after MacDonald (1992) described a method to distinguish thebones of chickens from African fowl (i.e. large galliforms such asfrancolins and guinea fowl guinea fowl(gĭn`ē), common name for any of the seven species of gallinaceous birds of the family Numididae, native to Africa and Madagascar. ). To date, archaeological evidence for thechicken is tare tare(târ), name sometimes used as a synonym for any vetch, most frequently for the common vetch. The tare of the Scriptures, a weed of grainfields and considered a seed of evil, is thought to have been the unrelated darnel (see rye grass). before the second millennium AD, with only a handful ofsites indicating their presence during the late first millennium AD.However, both historical linguistics historical linguisticsn. (used with a sing. verb)The study of linguistic change over time in language or in a particular language or language family, sometimes including the reconstruction of unattested forms of earlier stages of a language. and widespread cultural practice(the deeply embedded nature of chickens in ritual systems) attest to amuch longer presence of chickens in West Africa (e.g. MacDonald 1995a;Williamson 2000). In this paper I present new data flora the WestAfrican West AfricaA region of western Africa between the Sahara Desert and the Gulf of Guinea. It was largely controlled by colonial powers until the 20th century.West African adj. & n. site of Kirikongo that addresses this chronological gap bydemonstrating that chickens were a component part of the Iron Ageeconomy of this community by at latest the sixth century AD, andprobably as early as the second century AD. I go on to explore how theritual and economic dimensions of the chicken played an important rolein social transformations at Kirikongo over the course of the Iron Age. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Chickens in the Voltaic region The Voltaic region (Figure 1) is the area drained by the Mouhoun(Black), Nazinon (Red), and Nakambe (White Volta White Vol��ta?A river of Burkina Faso and northern Ghana flowing about 885 km (550 mi) southward to join the Black Volta and form the Volta River. ) rivers, comprisingmost of modern Burkina Faso Burkina Faso(burkē`nə fä`sō), republic (2005 est. pop. 13,925,000), 105,869 sq mi (274,200 sq km), W Africa. It borders on Mali in the west and north, on Niger in the northeast, on Benin in the southeast, and on Togo, Ghana, and , northern Ghana and small parts ofneighbouring countries (Delafosse 1912). Today, this area is home todiverse societies, the majority of whom are speakers of Gur languages Gur languagesformerly Voltaic languagesBranch of the huge Niger-Congo language family. Gur comprises some 85 languages and language complexes spoken by about 20,000,000 people mainly in Burkina Faso, northern Côte d'Ivoire, northern Ghana, and northern ,but also including a significant minority of Mande peoples. Politically,the eastern Voltaic region is largely inhabited by state-levelsocieties, while the western is mostly occupied by small-scale societieswith non-centralised political systems. Throughout the Voltaic region an important component of social andpolitical action (legitimisation) is historically derived from theritual petitioning of the divinities (spirits, deities or ancestors) bya representative of a social group (e.g. Delafosse 1912; Tauxier 1912;Cremer 1927; Labouret 1931; Fortes 1945; Manessy 1960; Goody 1962;Capron 1973; Duval 1985; Saul 1991; Dacher 1997; Izard Iz´ardn. 1. (Zool.) A variety of the chamois found in the Pyrenees. 2003; Kuba 2006;Insoll et al. 2009; Lentz 2009; see also Dueppen 2008, 2011). Althoughthey vary with social setting, ritual-based hierarchies (ascribed andachieved) are common, and positions are held by leaders of families,multi-family houses, communities, kin-groups, age-sets, alliances,craft-specialist groups etc. These individuals are involved in scheduledand circumstantial maintenance of spiritual pacts that in turnlegitimise Verb 1. legitimise - make legal; "Marijuana should be legalized"decriminalise, decriminalize, legalise, legalize, legitimate, legitimatise, legitimatize, legitimize and sanction social roles and institutions. To these areadded a variety of ritual practices performed by individuals duringactivities that have spiritual potency (i.e. hunting, smelting etc.). A critical feature of many rituals is the sacrifice of animals(both wild and domestic) to satiate sa��ti��ate?tr.v. sa��ti��at��ed, sa��ti��at��ing, sa��ti��ates1. To satisfy (an appetite or desire) fully.2. To satisfy to excess.adj.Filled to satisfaction. the divinities with an animal'ssoul (e.g. Tauxier 1912; Cremer 1927; Labouret 1931; see discussions inDueppen 2008). While dogs, sheep, goats and cattle (where present) aretoday sacrificed, the most frequently sacrificed animal is the chicken,an integral part of both minor and major petitions. Chickens are evencategorised based upon colour, size and individual characteristics, andused for different purposes accordingly (e.g. Cremer 1927; Kondombo etal. 2003). Outside their role in sacrificial settings, chickens holdeconomic value and are frequently exchanged or given as gifts (Kondomboet al. 2003). I argue that, given the number and diversity of sacrificial ritualsin many Voltaic societies, the easy care and low cost of chickens hasmade them uniquely suited to the maintenance of dynamic spiritual livesin the region. In addition, while chickens are useful in all Voltaicsocial settings, they are particularly important in egalitarian ornon-centralised political systems because, unlike livestock, long-termownership of chickens does not lead to wealth inequalities. Like manyother regional topics of interest, the origins of Voltaic chickens arepoorly understood. Fieldwork at the well-preserved site of Kirikongo (c.AD 100-1700) has attempted to address this gap in knowledge. Linguistics Kirikongo is today on the border between Gur and eastern Mandespeaking peoples. In West Africa historical linguistics indicatemultiple introductions of the chicken, as understood from documentationof local terms for domestic fowl. In Gur languages the root for chicken(KKR KKR Korringa-Kohn-Rostoker (method)KKR Kohlberg, Kravis & Roberts & Co.KKR Kalkara (postal locality, Malta)KKR Kramers-Kronig RelationsKKR Komarappa Gounder Ramalingam (hospital in India)) can be traced all the way back to proto-Gur, since it is common toboth central Gur languages Central Gur is a subgroup of the Gur language family, ultimately of the Niger-Congo phylum. The Central Gur languages are classified into six subgroups:Northern Oti-Volta (28 languages), including Kusaal Bwamu Koromfe Southern , such as More and Gourounsi, as well aswestern Gur languages like Senoufo (Manessy 1979; Williamson 2000).Williamson (2000) notes that according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Swadesh et al.'s (1966)glottochronology, proto-Gur may be 3000 years old. For western BurkinaFaso, it is interesting that the same root is also employed by someneighbouring eastern Mande and eastern Kru speaking societies(Williamson 2000: 372-74). These are considered to be more recentborrowing events, and alternative roots Alternative Roots is an episode of the British comedy television series The Goodies.This episode is also known as "The Goodies Find Their Roots" and "Hoots, Toots and Froots". for chicken terms are foundelsewhere in their respective linguistic groups. From linguistic data therefore, it appears that a Voltaic terra forchicken, and consequently chickens themselves, were known to earlyGur-speaking societies and later spread west into adjoining Mande andKru languages Kru languagesBranch of the Niger-Congo language family. It consists of some 24 languages (or language clusters) spoken by some three million Kru people living in the forest regions of southwestern Côte d'Ivoire and southern Liberia. . These match a greater linguistic pattern that suggests adispersal route in sub-Saharan Africa from the East African Adj. 1. East African - of or relating to or located in East Africa coast toparts of West Africa. As mentioned above, alternative introductions arealso indicated by linguistics, including another root found in mostMande languages Mande languagesBranch of the Niger-Congo language family. Mande comprises 40 languages of West Africa with more than 20 million speakers in a more or less contiguous area of southeastern Senegal, The Gambia, southern Mauritania, southwestern Mali, eastern Guinea, northern (Williamson 2000: 371-72), perhaps related to atrans-Saharan or cross-sahelian introduction. Archaeology Documenting the adoption of chickens in Africa has been hindered bythe chicken's osteological similarities with local fowl such asfrancolins (Francolinus sp.) and helmeted guinea fowl (Numidameleagris), the latter being both a domestic and a wild animal in WestAfrica. MacDonald's (1992) publication of a series of morphologicaldistinctions between the bones of large galliform birds significantlyimproved our ability to recognise chickens archaeologically. However,even with these criteria, distinguishable parts of the necessaryelements are rare due to the wide variety of post-depositional processesthat can fragment fragile avian bones. Chickens are ultimately derived from Southeast Asia where theJungle Fowl jungle fowl,common name for small, terrestrial wild fowl comprising four species in the genus Gallus. Most important of these is the red jungle fowl, which Charles Darwin determined to be the ancestor of all domesticated fowl. was domesticated do��mes��ti��cate?tr.v. do��mes��ti��cat��ed, do��mes��ti��cat��ing, do��mes��ti��cates1. To cause to feel comfortable at home; make domestic.2. To adopt or make fit for domestic use or life.3. a. in the sixth millennium BC (West & Zhou1988; Fumihito et al. 1994). Third- and fourth-millennium BC dates havebeen advanced for their arrival in East Africa (Chami 2007), however,these remains are contentious as those so far illustrated by Chami areall undiagnostic of Gallus using MacDonald's criteria (1992,pers.coram. 2010). Although depicted in Egypt from the second millennium BC,the earliest widely accepted sub-Saharan evidence for chickens dates tothe mid first millennium AD in Nubia and the late first millennium AD inEast and South Africa South Africa,Afrikaans Suid-Afrika, officially Republic of South Africa, republic (2005 est. pop. 44,344,000), 471,442 sq mi (1,221,037 sq km), S Africa. (Table 1). In central West Africa several sites attest to chickens in the latefirst millennium AD (Figure 1, Table 2) and the oldest known securelyidentified remains are dated to the latter part of Phase III Noun 1. phase III - a large clinical trial of a treatment or drug that in phase I and phase II has been shown to be efficacious with tolerable side effects; after successful conclusion of these clinical trials it will receive formal approval from the FDA (AD500-850) at Jenne-Jeno (MacDonald 1995b: 309; McIntosh 1995: 123).Further south, in the Voltaic region, evidence for chickens is scarcealthough researchers working at Daboya have suggested the presence ofchickens throughout the first millennium AD (Shinnie & Kense 1989).Daboya and Kirikongo share a ceramic affinity, particularly during thefirst millennium AD (see Dueppen 2008), and the evidence here presentedfrom Kirikongo may strengthen the argument for Iron Age chickens atDaboya. In general, by the second millennium AD chickens appear to bewidespread in West Africa (MacDonald & MacDonald 2000). Many researchers (e.g. MacDonald 1992, 1995a & b; Williamson2000; Blench blench?1?intr.v. blenched, blench��ing, blench��esTo draw back or shy away, as from fear; flinch.[Middle English blenchen, from Old English blencan, 2006) believe that linguistic data and cultural practicespoint to a great antiquity of chickens in West Africa, and that materialevidence has simply not yet been discovered owing to owing toprep.Because of; on account of: I couldn't attend, owing to illness.owing toprep → debido a, por causa deunsystematicrecovery methods and the paucity of archaeological research in theregion. This paper presents evidence from Kirikongo to support theirassertions regarding the antiquity of the chicken. Kirikongo site Kirikongo is an Iron Age mound cluster composed of 13 small moundstotalling 5.6ha distributed over a 37ha area (Figure 2). The site, oneof 19 identified by Holl and Kote (2000), is located in the Mouhounbend, the sharp curve in the Mouhoun River as it changes from a north-to a south-flowing course towards Ghana. I directed two independentseasons of fieldwork at Kirikongo in the dry seasons of 2004 and 2006. Kirikongo is set upon a lateritic lat��er��ite?n.A red residual soil in humid tropical and subtropical regions that is leached of soluble minerals, aluminum hydroxides, and silica but still contains concentrations of iron oxides and iron hydroxides. rise that descends gradually tothe Mouhoun River 10km to the east, and spatially can be divided into avillage centre of eight mounds encircling Mound 4, an isolated mound onthe northern edge of the site, and three mounds set in a N/S line to theeast of the village centre (these post-date events in this paper). Otherfeatures in the site catchment area catchment areaor drainage basin,area drained by a stream or other body of water. The limits of a given catchment area are the heights of land—often called drainage divides, or watersheds—separating it from neighboring drainage include iron smelting installations,laterite lateriteSoil layer rich in iron oxide and sometimes aluminum, derived from a wide variety of rocks by leaching. It forms in tropical and subtropical regions where the climate is humid. quarries (for iron ore and flooring material) and wells.Fieldwork aimed to examine house mounds over time to reconstructcommunity social relations, and consequently employed excavations (atMounds 1, 3, 4, 9 and 11, and an iron furnace a furnace for reducing iron from the ore, or for melting iron for castings, etc.; a forge; a reverberatory; a bloomery.See also: Iron ), shovel tests, systematicsurface collections and the recording of exposed profiles on moundstruncated by modern road construction. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Given the lack of a pre-existing chronological sequence Noun 1. chronological sequence - a following of one thing after another in time; "the doctor saw a sequence of patients"chronological succession, succession, successiveness, sequencetemporal arrangement, temporal order - arrangement of events in time for westernBurkina Faso, I divided Kirikongo's deposits into two phases basedupon architectural change. The 'Yellow phase' is characterisedby coursed earthen structures with yellow pounded clay floors. Thesubsequent 'Red phase' is marked by earthen brick structureswith red floors composed of crushed laterite mixed with clay. Owing tothe durability of flooring techniques and the consistent stratificationof architecture, deposits were well-sealed with little post-depositionaldisturbance. These phases were further divided into sub-phases based onseriation of the site's ceramics, and anchored to calendar yearsthrough a series of nine calibrated radiometric dates (Table 3); thispaper focuses upon Kirikongo's Iron Age deposits (Yellow I to RedIII). The faunal remains presented here are derived from excavations atMounds 1, 3, 4 and 11. All deposits were screened through a 2.0mm mesh.Bones were identified using the extensive comparative collections housedat the Smithsonian Institution Smithsonian Institution,research and education center, at Washington, D.C.; founded 1846 under terms of the will of James Smithson of London, who in 1829 bequeathed his fortune to the United States to create an establishment for the "increase and diffusion of , The Field Museum of Chicago, andUniversity of Michigan (body, education) University of Michigan - A large cosmopolitan university in the Midwest USA. Over 50000 students are enrolled at the University of Michigan's three campuses. The students come from 50 states and over 100 foreign countries. Museums of Zoology zoology,branch of biology concerned with the study of animal life. From earliest times animals have been vitally important to man; cave art demonstrates the practical and mystical significance animals held for prehistoric man. and Anthropology. Eggshell wasanalysed at the University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. Bird bone Dating from Yellow I to Red III, 159 elements attributable to largegalliform birds were identified. Using MacDonald's (1992) criteriaor epiphenomenal size where appropriate, 12 were positively identifiedas francolins, 13 as chickens and only one as guinea fowl (Table 4).While chickens (from Yellow II) and francolins (from Yellow I) span thesequence, the first and only identifiable guinea fowl bone dates to RedIII. One of the Yellow II chicken bones was recovered from the earlypart of the sub-phase and is directly associated with an ANIS date of560-660 cal AD (2[sigma] range). Given its stratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat location theremains almost certainly date to the late sixth century AD. The otherearly chicken bone, derived stratigraphically from the middle of YellowII, is directly associated with an AMS AMS - Andrew Message System date of 610-680 cal AD (2c~range). Given that the chicken bones from Jenne-Jeno (above) likelyderive from the eighth or ninth century AD, Kirikongo's evidencecan be considered the earliest known in West Africa. However, while direct evidence of chicken bones cannot be confirmeduntil the sixth century AD, analyses of the relative size of bonessuggest that chickens were possibly present from the early firstmillennium AD. In general, small chickens can overlap in size with largefrancolins, large chickens often overlap with guinea fowl, andfrancolins and guinea fowl can reliably be separated by size. Sincethere are multiple species of francolins of varying size, some elementscan be distinguished from chickens owing to epiphenomenally small size(although see discussions on francolin size in Linseele 2007). AtKirikongo, the francolins identified using MacDonald's (1992)criteria were smaller than can be expected for chickens, andconsequently some elements were attributed to francolin solely based onsize. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] I divided the remaining large galliform elements into two sizeclasses, Gallus/Francolinus (n = 11) and Gallus/Numida (n = 119) (onlythree galliform bones were not so designated). At least 13 of the bonesassigned to Francolinus/Gallus or Gallus/Numida can likely be attributedto Gallusgallus based on direct association with positively identifiedbones. Since guinea fowl was not positively identified ar Kirikongo untillate Red III, it would seem more likely that the second assemblage ismainly composed of chickens, in which case they would occur from YellowI, c. AD 100 (Figure 3). This suggestion will be reinforced below byeggshell data. If so, chicken frequencies increase substantially overtime, reaching a peak in Red II before declining very slightly in RedIII; this pattern occurs whether or not Gallus/Francolinus elements areincluded with Gallus/Numida and chicken remains. Frequencies of birdbone in Yellow I are likely artificially inflated since domestic debrisrepresented a much higher percentage of the excavated deposits than inother periods. A shift in general hunting strategies from small-scale gardenhunting to large-scale collective hunts has previously been identifiedstarting in late Red II (Dueppen 2008). This change in practice mayaccount for the first occurrence of guinea fowl in Red III and perhapsthe reappearance of francolins in Red III after an absence from Red IIdeposits. Eggshell As described in detail by Keepax (1981), eggshell thickness variesaccording to species and within a species thickness varies dependingupon the particular breed and between individuals. Minor sources ofvariability include the part of the egg and the season in which they arelaid. In general, according to Keepax, shells between 0.5-0.85mm arederived from geese and guinea fowl, while thinner shells between0.20-0.50mm are produced by chickens and small ducks. AlthoughKeepax's measurements are based on European specimens her resultsare consistent with the detailed thickness measurements of tropicalgalliforms included in Schonwetter (1967, 1992). Not part ofKeepax's study, three members of the genus Francolinus occur inBurkina Faso today: F. albogularis, F. coqui and, by far the most commonspecies, E bicalcaratus (Crowe et al. 1986). Very thick shells arecommon in francolins and measurements given by Schonwetter (1967) forthe latter two species are 0.80mm and 0.60mm respectively. Analyses of Kirikongo's eggshell indicate two discrete groups(Figure 4). The thicker group, 0.58-0.70mm, is likely derived fromguinea fowl and/or francolin. The thinner group, 0.25-0.39mm (generallyclustering around 0.30-0.3 l mm), can likely be attributed to chickensas the consistent thickness range over time and statistically normaldistribution suggest a single population of birds. Attribution tochicken also seems appropriate given consistent evidence forGallus/Numida bones spanning the sequence. In addition, the depositionalcontext suggests that these are chicken eggshells, as the scatteredfragments of guinea fowl or francolin eggshell were found exclusively incontexts with the remains of hunted animals, while those of chickenswere found evenly distributed in domestic contexts. The eggshell thickness distribution at Kirikongo generally exhibitsmuch less variability than that described for Iron Age northern BurkinaFaso by Linseele (2007), who interprets her assemblage as resulting fromthe raiding of diverse bird's nests. However, Linseele'stentative identification of chicken eggshell from the Middle Iron Age(AD 500-1000) at Kissi 22 is strengthened by the data from Kirikongo. The social background for chicken use Three lines of evidence indicate that early chickens were presentat Kirikongo: the identification of chicken bones in early Yellow II;the presence of bones in the proper size range for chickens and guineafowl beginning in Yellow I with no direct evidence for the latter untillate Red III; and analyses of eggshell thickness suggesting that asingle bird population in the proper range for chicken was present fromthe beginning of the sequence. While chickens were likely presentthroughout the sequence, bone and eggshell frequencies suggest thattheir relative role in the social system increased over time. Kirikongo is one of the oldest sedentary farming communities knownin western Burkina Faso although data from iron furnaces suggest thatsimilar communities may have been present by at the latest the last fewcenturies BC (Kiethega 1993; Holl & Kote 2000; Coulibaly 2006; Holl2009; Kote 2009). Archaeological data from Kirikongo (Dueppen 2008,2011) indicate that the ancient community is likely ancestral to theBwa, a noncentralised society that is today characterised by theirautonomous villages, egalitarian social relations, a communalistic com��mu��nal��ist?n.1. An advocate of communal living.2. One who is more interested in one's own minority or ethnic group than in society as a whole.3. religion (the Do), bride service rather than bride wealth bride wealthn.A payment in the form of money, property, or other valuable asset that is made by or on behalf of a prospective husband to the bride's family in certain cultures or societies. Also called bride price. ,socio-economically specialised multi-family houses with farmers,smith/potters and griots (poets), and a spatial organisation ofclustered neighbourhoods rather than dosed compounds (Capron 1973). [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] In Bwa society animal sacrifice facilitates the functioning ofmultiple active ritual systems, including those of individual persons ormulti-family houses, village-level rituals to the natural spirits andancestors, the practices of smiths and griots, as well as thecommunalistic religion (Do) (Tauxier 1912; Cremer 1927; Manessy 1960;Capron 1973). Given the immense number of situations requiringsacrifice, chickens play a particularly important role since they areeasy to care for and reproduce quickly, although a variety of animals(dogs, sheep, goats etc.) are available for sacrificial use. Chickensalso represent a low-value economic currency which can be used for smalltransactions and gift-giving in Bwa society. Excavations revealed a dynamic social history for the ancestral Bwavillage of Kirikongo (Dueppen 2008, 2011). The community was founded c.AD 100 (Yellow I) by a single economically generalised multi-familyhouse (Mound 4) and grew over the course of the first millennium AD intoa village of at least six economically generalised houses. However, overtime the founding house's members extended their political controlover the village, first at a low level by asserting their authority overthe earth and ancestral shrines (early Yellow II) and later moreextensively by co-opting iron production, a spiritually potent process(Yellow II and Red I). By the beginning of the second millennium AD(early Red II), Mound 4's members were socially ranked over therest of the community, having established unequal access to cattle,special mortuary treatment for infants and adults, restrictive access tothe cemetery and control over iron-smelting. However, in the twelfth century (middle Red II) a revolutionoccurred as the community reinvented egalitarian social relations.Socio-economic inequalities disappeared (cattle ceased to be kept), thecemetery was closed, household and activity organisation shifted towardsvillage communalism com��mu��nal��ism?n.1. Belief in or practice of communal ownership, as of goods and property.2. Strong devotion to the interests of one's own minority or ethnic group rather than those of society as a whole. and multi-family houses (now numbering at least 10)ceased to be generalised and became socio-economically specialisedthrough the emergence of hereditary smith/potters--a decentralisation n. 1. same as decentralization.Noun 1. decentralisation - the spread of power away from the center to local branches or governmentsdecentralizationspreading, spread - act of extending over a wider scope or expanse of space or time ofsources of power in the removal of spiritually potent iron-working fromMound 4 to Mound 11. While all previous ritual hierarchies remainedintact, they were marginalised in the face of a new communalisticegalitarian religion, likely similar to the modern Do. A component of post revolution Kirikongo was the construction of anarchitectural complex at Mound 4 that demonstrates formal similaritiesto a modern Bwa ancestor house (Capron 1973: 223). The structures,spanning Red II and III, were destroyed in a burning event and depositssealed by the roof-fall. Interestingly, within one room was a locale forthe ritual sacrifice of chickens that contained the remains of at leastfour chickens, a knife-sharpening stone, ceramic vessels, cowrie cowrieor cowry(both: kou`rē), common name applied to marine gastropods belonging to the family Cypraeidae, a well-developed family of marine snails found in the tropics. shellsand a bare patch of floor in an otherwise paved surface. It is upon barepatches (in direct contact with the potent earth where the ancestors areburied) that modern sacrifices are made to the ancestors in similarcomplexes. In relation to social events at Kirikongo, frequencies of chickensincrease in tandem with the growing number of ritual hierarchies overthe sequence, and they were probably the most frequently sacrificedanimals beginning in Red I. While they likely enabled rituals before andafter the revolution, their relative role probably changed with thereinvention of egalitarianism. For example, livestock likely played animportant role symbolising increasing inequalities prior to therevolution, since afterwards community members ceased keeping cattle andlessened the number of small stock and dogs. However, chickenfrequencies immediately before and after the revolution remain largelyeven, and it is likely that their relative social role increased in acultural environment that had rejected inequalities partly materialisedin livestock. Moreover, while chickens and other animals were likelyextracted into a hierarchical ritual structure prior to the revolution(see Duval 1985 for a Voltaic ethnographic example), in the newcorporate setting, chickens provided a means to maintain the richspiritual life within a consciously reinvented egalitarian societywithout creating wealth differentials. After the revolution no chicken eggshell is found at Mound 11, theresidence and activity area of specialised smith-potters. Historically,hereditary craft specialists in Bwa society do not keep animals or farm,rather they exchange their craft products for food and othercompensation (Capron 1973). It is interesting that Mound 11 attests toconsumption of chickens (chicken bones are found) but perhaps notproduction (this matches several other lines of evidence that thesecraft specialists obtained subsistence from other community members, seeDueppen 2008). In summary, when explored in the greater social contextof the site of Kirikongo, chickens were likely used similarly to todayin ritual contexts and for economic transactions. Conclusion Scholars have suspected that chickens have much greater antiquityin Africa than had previously been indicated by archaeology. For theVoltaic (Gur) languages, it is thought that the root for chicken termsextends back to proto-Gur (c. 1000 BC). Data from Kirikongo makeplausible the evidence for chickens in other parts of the Voltaic region(i.e. Daboya) at the latest by the middle first millennium AD andprobably several centuries earlier, and begins to fill the chronologicalgap found between embedded cultural practice, linguistics andarchaeology. Linguistics suggest that at least one introduction of thechicken into West Africa is ultimately derived from coastal East Africa,from where they moved westward into central Africa before entering WestAfrica to be adopted by Gur speakers and eventually by eastern Mande andKru speakers. Evidence from Kirikongo lends support to this hypothesisas well, particularly the relative timing of the westward spread of theterm out of the Voltaic region, since the site is currently located inthe border zone between Gur and Mande languages, with the latter groups(e.g. the Bobo and Samo) believed to be more recent arrivals to the areathan the Bwa. In models of adoption and social change within West Africa,north/south movements are often presumed and prioritised. Data fromKirikongo indicates cross-savannah, east/west movement, and reminds usof the dynamism of prehistoric Africa, as well as the need to consider avariety of sources for ideas and technologies, local and external. Inparticular, even when adopted technologies are externally derived, theyare inserted into a society within the local logic, and chickens mayhave served to legitimate both inequalities and equalities over time atKirikongo. Chickens are extremely versatile and low cost animals thathave likely expanded the range of events within which sacrifices can beeconomically made, and may have shaped the long-term development ofritual systems dependent upon them. In addition, I have argued that ownership of large quantities ofchickens is less likely than livestock (even small stock and dogs) to bea source of wealth inequalities, and most families can obtain enoughchickens to fulfill their ritual practices. Particularly given a socialmemory of inequalities partly materialised in livestock, the presenceand availability of the chicken likely helped the inhabitants ofKirikongo to perform the necessary sacrifices in the post-revolutionsociety. Acknowledgements I wish to thank Kevin MacDonald and one anonymous reviewer fortheir helpful comments that greatly improved this paper. Excavations atKirikongo were funded by the National Science Foundation (BCS-0520614)and the University of Michigan. The faunal analyses were primarilycompleted ar the National Museum of Natural History and funded by aSmithsonian Institution Pre-Doctoral Fellowship facilitated by MelindaZeder. James Dean provided access to the extensive NMNH NMNH National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC; also New Delhi, India; also seen as NMNHI)bird collection.In Burkina Faso, permissions were granted by the CNRST CNRST Conseil National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique (French)and the Ministryof Culture (Oumarou Nao). I am particularly grateful to Lassina Kote ofthe University of Ouagadougou Founded in 1974, the University of Ouagadougou is located in the area of Zogona in Ouagadougou. But in 1995 a second campus for professional education known as University Polytechnique of Bobo (UPB) was opened in the city of Bobo Dioulasso and a third campus for teacher training in , who generously facilitated my fieldworkprogram and provided a variety of critical cultural and archaeologicalinsights. At the University of Michigan I thank Kent Flannery andRichard Redding, who provided space in the UMMA ZooarchaeologyLaboratory, as well as Janet Hinshaw of the UMMZ UMMZ University of Michigan Museum of Zoology (University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan)Bird Division who madeavailable the necessary bird skeletons. At the Field Museum, I thankChapurukha Kusimba for his hospitality and advice during severalresearch trips to Chicago. Received: 5 May 2010: Accepted: 3 July 2010; Revised: 9 August 2010 References BEDAUX, R., T.S. CONSTANDE-WESTERMANN, A.G. HACQUEBORD, A.G. LANGE& J.D. VAN DER DER - Distinguished Encoding Rules WAALS. 1978. Recherche re��cher��ch��?adj.1. Uncommon; rare.2. Exquisite; choice.3. Overrefined; forced.4. Pretentious; overblown. archeologiques dans le DeltaInterieur du Niger (Mali). Palaeohistoria 20: 91-220. BLENCH, R.M. 2006. Archaeology, language, and the African past.Lanham (MD): Altamira. BOUCHUD, J. 1983. 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New evidencefor domestication domesticationProcess of hereditary reorganization of wild animals and plants into forms more accommodating to the interests of people. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of wild animals and plants. . Journal of Archaeological Science 15:515-33. WILLIAMSON, K. 2000. Did chickens go west?, in R. Blench & K.MacDonald (ed.) The origins and development of African livestock:368-448. London: UCL Press. Stephen A. Dueppen, Department of Anthropology, University ofOregon The University of Oregon is a public university located in Eugene, Oregon. The university was founded in 1876, graduating its first class two years later. The University of Oregon is one of 60 members of the Association of American Universities. , 308 Condon Hall, 1321 Kincaid Street, Eugene, OR 97403, USA(Email: dueppen@uoregon.edu)Table 1. Representative early dates for Gallus gallus from Egypt,East Africa and South Africa.Site Location DateKuumbi Cave Zanzibar, Tanzania 3000-4000 BCMachaga Cave Zanzibar, Tanzania c. 2800 BCMultiple sites Egypt 2nd millennium BCQasr Ibrim Egypt (Nubia) 5th-6th century ADShanga Kenya 8th century ADManda Kenya 9th-14th century ADNdondondwane Natal, South Africa 8th century ADBosutswe Botswana 9th century ADSite Reference NotesKuumbi Cave Chami 2007 see text for discussionMachaga Cave Chami 2007 see text for discussionMultiple sites various pictoral representations (MacDonald & Edwards 1993)Qasr Ibrim MacDonald & Edwards 1993Shanga Horton & Mudida 1993Manda Chittick 1984Ndondondwane Plug 1996aBosutswe Plug 1996bTable 2. Published dates for Gallus gallus in central West Africaprior to AD 1500.Site Location DateDaboya Ghana 1st millennium ADJenne-jeno Mali AD 500-850 (Phase III)Mssi 22 Burkina Faso AD 500-1000Dia Mali c. AD 800Tegdaoust Mauretania c. AD 900Gao-Saney Mali AD 900-1200Akumbu Mali AD 1000-1400Toguere Galia Mali AD 1000-1400Oursi, Saouga, Burkina Faso AD 1000-1400Kissi sitesYatenga sites Burkina Faso early 2nd millennium ADKerebe-Sira-Tomo Burkina Faso early 2nd millennium ADBanda sites Ghana early 2nd millennium AD Mauretania, Mali AD 1352-53Site Reference NotesDaboya Shinnie & Kense suggested presence, 1989 although systematic analyses are lackingJenne-jeno MacDonald identified element is 1995b:309; from latter part of McIntosh 1995: Phase III 123Mssi 22 Linseele 2007 suggested presence based on eggshellDia Manning & MacDonald 2005Tegdaoust Bouchud 1983Gao-Saney Insoll 1994Akumbu Togola 2008; MacDonald 1992Toguere Galia Bedaux et al. 1978Oursi, Saouga, Linseele 2007Kissi sitesYatenga sites Lingane 1995 possible presenceKerebe-Sira-Tomo Holl & Kote 2000 based on eggshellBanda sites Stahl 1999 Ibn Battuta first known written (Levtzion & documentation of Hopkins 1981: chicken in West 300 AfricaTable 3. Kirikongo chronology with current dates.Architectural Ceramic Current calendar datesphase subphase (based on 9 AMS samples)Yellow Yellow I c. AD 100-500 Yellow II c. AD 500-700Red Red I c. AD 700-1100 Red II c. AD 1100-1260 Red III c. AD 1260-1450 Red IV * c. AD 1450-1600 Red V * c. AD 1600-1700* Red IV and V are not discussed in this article as analysesare still in progress.Table 4. Chicken, francolin and guinea fowl bones identifiedfrom Phases Yellow I-Red III at Kirikongo.Sub-phase Species ElementYellow I Francolinus sp. * Humerus Francolinus sp. Coracoid Francolinus sp. Coracoid Francolinus sp. * HumerusYellow II Francolinus sp. Scapula Francolinus sp. Tarsometatarsus Francolinus sp. * Tibiotarsus Francolinus sp. * Tibiotarsus Gallus gallus Carpometacarpus ([dagger]) Gallus gallus Coracoid ([double dagger])Red I Francolinus sp. Tarsometatarsus Francolinus sp. Tarsometatarsus Gallus gallus SternumRed II Gallus gallus Coracoid Gallus gallus Radius Francolinus sp. Coracoid Francolinus sp. * Tibiotarsus Gallus gallus Carpometacarpus Gallus gallus Coracoid Gallus gallus CoracoidRed III Gallus gallus Scapula Gallus gallus Scapula Gallus gallus Sternum Gallus gallus Tarsometatarsus Gallus gallus Tarsometatarsus Numida meleagris Carpometacarpus* Bones identified based on size class.([dagger]) AMS date on this depositional context (E60): 2[sigma]range cal AD SGO-6GO.([double dagger]) AMS date on this depositional context (B13G):2[sigma] range cal AD G10-G80.