Early urbanization in the Eastern Zhou in China (770-221 BC): an archaeological view.

Early urbanization in the Eastern Zhou in China (770-221 BC): an archaeological view. Take six early Chinese cities from the key Eastern Zhou period, studytheir shape and topography topography(təpŏg`rəfē), description or representation of the features and configuration of land surfaces. Topographic maps use symbols and coloring, with particular attention given to the shape and elevations of terrain. , see how their development represents bothmigration into the urban centres and the established structures of theruling class.Most previous studies on Chinese urbanization have not paid attentionto archaeological perspectives. During the past decade and a half, agreat number of early cities, especially Eastern Zhou dynasty Zhou dynastyor Chou dynasty(1046–256 BC) Ancient Chinese dynasty that gave China its historically identifying political and cultural characteristics. cities,have been unearthed Unearthed is the name of a Triple J project to find and "dig up" (hence the name) hidden talent in regional Australia.Unearthed has had three incarnations - they first visited each region of Australia where Triple J had a transmitter - 41 regions in all. , and we can now interpret the matter from anarchaeological point of view. This paper explores some patterns of earlyurbanization during the Eastern Zhou period (770-221 BC), based uponevidence from recent archaeological discoveries at six cities. The essaystarts with a brief review of early studies, and then outlines these sixEastern Zhou cities, focussing on their layout plan. Certain patterns ofearly urbanization are drawn from the comparative study of these cities.Finally, Qufu city is used to exemplify ex��em��pli��fy?tr.v. ex��em��pli��fied, ex��em��pli��fy��ing, ex��em��pli��fies1. a. To illustrate by example: exemplify an argument.b. the urbanization process duringthe Eastern Zhou period.Research background and problemsBefore the 1980s, research on Chinese ancient cities relied heavilyon the Classic texts (Wheatley 1970; 1971; Chang 1976). Although somearchaeological evidence was applied to support correlations with ancientcities identified in texts, none of these studies was directed towardsarchaeological interpretations of early urbanization. Most scholarlyinterest in the state-capital cities of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty byChinese archaeologists Archaeology is a discipline that was virtually unknown until the 19th century. Archaeology, originally an amateur pastime, is becoming increasingly popular, and it is now possible for archaeologists to become minor celebrities as a result of media exposure. and historians was limited to1 the geographical localities of cities (Shi 1980; Zhou 1978; Pei1980),2 the changes in physical features within cities corresponding toshifts in function (Yu 1985), and3 the origin of the city-layout plan (Si 1986; Ma 1981; 1984; Li1987).As these archaeological interpretations tended merely to verify thewritten records, few attempts were made to reconstruct re��con��struct?tr.v. re��con��struct��ed, re��con��struct��ing, re��con��structs1. To construct again; rebuild.2. the urban life ofthat 500-year period (Li 1984). Since 1980, adequate archaeological datahave become available, and to a certain degree some previous conclusionsconcerning both the functions of the early city and the standardizationof early city layout need to be reconsidered. In this paper I do notdiscuss these disputes, but it seems necessary to outline briefly somecomments.It seems certain that the early urbanization of China took place intwo stages; according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Chang (1976): the first, in the Shang Dynasty Shang dynastyor Yin dynastyTraditionally, the second of China's dynasties, following the Xia dynasty. Until excavations in the 20th century provided archaeological evidence for the Xia, the Shang was the first verifiable Chinese dynasty. ,was regarded as a revolution in the social system; the second, in themiddle of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, was the result of the reforming ofthe social order due to 'a technological revolution' (Chang1976: 60). In his broad analysis of Shang and Zhou texts, Chang hasdescribed the Chinese ancient city as a political nucleus nucleus, in physicsnucleus,in physics, the extremely dense central core of an atom.The Nature of the NucleusComposition andadministrative locus (1976: 69; 1983: 1718; 1986: 418-19). On the otherhand, Fu views the appearance of early cities as a result of setting upadministrative and defensive centres by the ruling class to controltheir lordland, not as a result of the natural aggregation of populationfor commercial purposes during the Shang Dynasty (1980: 321-86; 1981:280). Fu claimed that the cities before the Eastern Zhou in a generalsense were not true cities, but 'farmland with walls'. Hefurther noted that the standard layout of the early city reflected thepolitical settlement pattern of the ruling class. According to theClassic text Kuaogong Ji, this kind of settlement pattern strictlyfollowed the principle of the city plan:The artificers ARTIFICERS. Persons whose employment or business consists chiefly of bodily labor. Those who are masters of their arts. Cunn. Dict. h.t. Vide Art. demarcated the [Royal Zhou] capital as a square withsides of 9 li, each side having 3 gateways. Within the capital therewere 9 meridional me��rid��i��o��naladj.Of or relating to meridians or a meridian. and 9 latitudinal avenues, each of the former being 9chariot-tracks in width. The ancestor-worship temples were on left sideof the city while the god-worship temples on the right. Theadministrative centre Administrative Centre (in Norwegian administrativt senter; in Portuguese centro administrativo) is often used in several countries to refer to a county town, or other seat of regional/local government, or the place where the central administration of a commune is was in the front and the markets were in the back.It is still widely accepted that most capital cities of the EasternZhou States shared these characteristics of layout (Yu 1985; Yang yang(yang) [Chinese] in Chinese philosophy, the active, positive, masculine principle that is complementary to yin; see yin, under principle. 1984),which led archaeologists to look for features such as gates, streets,temples, palaces, etc. and their localities. Based upon thesepreconceptions, certain patterns of the Eastern Zhou cities could beseen as follows:1 the mono-functionalism of the political centre was associated withceremonial and defensive features2 standard city layout was shared by most contemporary cities3 rapid changes within cities were due to disorder of socialstructure and breakage of the lineage LINEAGE. Properly speaking lineage is the relationship of persons in a direct line; as the grandfather, the father, the son, the grandson, &c. system4 patterns of Eastern Zhou urbanism have survived from the ShangDynasty.An analysis of six ancient cities in the following sections shows aresult that makes me confident to question these patterns. I doubt thatthere was true urbanization, or an 'urban revolution', duringthe early Shang Dynasty. As to how urbanism occurred in the first placeto create a certain pattern of physical city layout, the firsturbanization in ancient China may be considered to have taken place inthe Eastern Zhou Dynasty, when a number of farmers abandoned their landsand shared urban life for the first time with members of the rulingclass. Their deliberate activity in the urban area changed and re-shapedthe city layout that the rulers had designed and failed to keep. It isthe urbanization process that dictated a change in the city layout plan,which archaeological evidence is now able to retrieve.Ancient city plans: history and archaeology archaeology(ärkēŏl`əjē)[Gr.,=study of beginnings], a branch of anthropology that seeks to document and explain continuity and change and similarities and differences among human cultures. Although hundreds of the Eastern Zhou cities are recorded in thewritten sources (Yang 1983: 95-196), the city ruins investigated come toa total of 33. With the extensive establishment of the Feudal feu��dal?adj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of feudalism.2. Of or relating to lands held in fee or to the holding of such lands.feu Lordsystem in the Eastern Zhou, a few States such as Qi, Lu, Zheng, Han,Zhao, Yan and Chu developed rapidly in their socio-economy and becamemore powerful. The localities of their capitals have been recognized bytextual tex��tu��al?adj.Of, relating to, or conforming to a text.textu��al��ly adv. analysis and confirmed by archaeological investigations. Thesesix state-capital cities have been completely surveyed and partlyexcavated, yielding invaluable information about social changes.1 Qufu city, Lu StateEarly fieldwork field��work?n.1. A temporary military fortification erected in the field.2. Work done or firsthand observations made in the field as opposed to that done or observed in a controlled environment.3. was undertaken by the Japanese during World War II(Komai 1951), and yielded an assemblage assemblage:see collage. assemblageThree-dimensional construction made from household materials such as rope and newspapers or from any found materials. of bronze vessels, semicirculareaves-tiles and coins, which indicates that this place was the site ofthe Lu capital (Li 1984: 111). Surveys in the 1950s and 1960s were notsatisfactory regarding layout for the whole city. In 1977-78 extensiveinvestigations and test excavations were carried out by the Institute ofArchaeology The Institute of Archaeology is an academic department of University College London (UCL), in the United Kingdom. The Institute is located in a separate building at the north end of Gordon Square, Bloomsbury. , Shandong Province (Tian Tianor T'ien(Chinese; “Heaven”)In indigenous Chinese religion, the supreme power reigning over humans and lesser gods. The term refers to a deity, to impersonal nature, or to both. 1982), and the Provincial Museum(Shandong 1984).The domain of the Lu Lord included the areas of the Wen river valleyand the upper and middle roaches of the Si river. It was initiallyenfeoffed to the Duke of Zhou The Duke of Zhou (Chinese: 周公旦; Pinyin: Zhōu Gōng D��n) was the brother of King Wu of Zhou. in the early Western Zhou period, afterwhich his son presided over the state, and located his royal court andresidence at Qufu. The ancient city is situated in southwest Shandong,and surrounded by two rivers Two Rivers,city (1990 pop. 13,030), Manitowoc co., E Wis., on Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Twin River; inc. 1878. Two Rivers is closely associated with its twin city, Manitowoc, both of which are highly industrialized. , Zushui and Yishui, which are branches ofthe Si river.Recent studies have drawn the shape of Qufu as a rough rectangle withfour rounded corners, each side of the rectangle tending to protrude pro��trudev.1. To push or thrust outward.2. To jut out; project. following the direction of the rivers. It is about 3500 m east-west and2500 m north-south, a total of 11,771 m in circumference. Eleven citygates have been found on four sides, three each in the north, east andwest walls, only two in the south. Ten major streets, five oriented o��ri��ent?n.1. Orient The countries of Asia, especially of eastern Asia.2. a. The luster characteristic of a pearl of high quality.b. A pearl having exceptional luster.3. east-west and five north-south, connected the city gates. Other featuresinclude stamped-earth platforms and foundations, sites of workshops andresidences, and cemeteries. The concentration of rammed-earth structuralfoundations, mainly composed of nine complexes, is at the centre of thecity toward the south. The palatial pa��la��tial?adj.1. Of or suitable for a palace: palatial furnishings.2. Of the nature of a palace, as in spaciousness or ornateness: a palatial yacht. area is represented by the centralplatform complex, about 1000 m long from east to west, on the highground now known as Zhougongmiao. A large Eastern Zhou structure hasbeen unearthed from this area. From in front of the foundation above, astraight street ran to the southeast gate, and continued south about1735 m to arrive at a platform, Wuyuntai, regarded as a site of anancestor-worship temple outside the city.TABLE 1. Ruins of Eastern Zhou cities surveyed.name state location source1 Yanxiandu Yan Yi, Hebei KGYWW 65/12 Zhouwangcheng Royal Zhou Luoyan, Henan KGXB 59/23 Qufu Lu Qufu, Shangdong WW 82/124 Linzi Qi Zhibuo, Shangdong KG 61/6; WW 72/55 Huoma Jin Huoma, Shanxi KG 63/26 Xingzheng Zheng-Han Xingzheng, Henan WWCKZL 37 Handan Zhao Handan, Hebei KG 80/28 Anyi Wei Xia, Shanxi KG 63/99 Lingsuocheng Zhongshan Pinshan, Hebei WW 79/110 Jinancheng Chu Jianglin, Hubei KGXB 82/3-411 Zhiguicheng Chu Zhigui, Hubei JHKG 80/112 Dangyancheng Chu Dangyan, Hubei WW 80/1013 Chuhuangcheng Chu Yicheng, Hubei KG 80/214 Yongcheng Qin Fongxiang, Shangxi KG 80/415 Yueyan Qin Yueyan, Shangxi WW 66/116 Xianyan Qin Xianyan, Shangxi KG 62/217 Zhucheng Zhu Zhou, Shangdong KG 65/1218 Xuecheng Xue Ten, Shangdong KG 65/1219 Tencheng Ten Ten, Shangdong KG 65/1220 Dengcheng Deng Xiangfan, Hubei Shi 198021 Shangcaicheng Cai Shangcai, Hunan KG 62/4-522 Biwancheng Wei Ruicheng, Shanxi Shang 198023 Qingyuncheng ? Wenxi, Shanxi KG 63/524 Huangdong ? Huang, Shanxi KG 63/1025 Dongbugencheng ? Wuyan, Henan KG 58/226 Yancheng ? Yanlin, Henan KG 63/427 Huacheng ? Yanshi, Henan KG 64/428 Yingjincheng ? Huaying, Shangxi KG 59/1129 Jianwucheng ? Ci, Hebei KG 59/730 Fangcheng ? Fang, Hubei JHKG 90/231 Yunmongzhe ? Yunmong, Hubei JHKG 91/432 Yancheng Han Denfong, Henan WW 77/1233 Fugou ? Fugou, Henan WW 80/10abbreviations for journals and series:JHKG Jiang Han Kao Gu (Jianghan Archaeology)KG Kao Gu (Archaeology)KGYWW Kao Gu Yu Wen Wu (Archaeology and Cultural Relics)KGXB Kao Gu Xue Bao (Acta Archaeologica Sinica)KGXJK Kao Gu Xue Ji Kan (Reports and Essay Papers of Archaeology)WW Wen Wu (Cultural Relics)WWCKZL Wen Wu Can Kao Zi Liao (Reference and Reports of Cultural Relics)A dozen workshop sites, for metal-founding and the manufacture ofpottery and bone objects, are concentrated in the north, north-west andwest of the palatial area. Over 10 areas of residence are mainly foundwithin the area of the workshops, as well as in the eastern part of thecity. Four groups of cemeteries are all in the western part of city. Thesouthwest portion could not be investigated due to its occupation as themodern downtown.Based upon the particular Hangtu (stamped-earth) technology, the citywall is assumed to have been built as early as later Western Zhou(Shandong 1984: 212). Five phases in the archaeological strata ofportions of the city walls suggest that the wall had been widened andheightened during the Eastern Zhou period and that the city lasted aslate as the Han Dynasty Han dynasty(206 BC–AD 220) Second great Chinese imperial dynasty. In contrast to the preceding Qin dynasty, the Han was a period of cultural flowering. One of the greatest of the early histories, the Shiji by Sima Qian, was composed, and the fu, a poetic form that .2 Linzi city, Qi StateThe Duke Xian, the seventh King of the Qi State, led his followers ina move to the west (Bogu), and then founded Linzi city as his newcapital in 859 BC, according to the text Shiji: Qitaigong Sijia. Thesite, located northwest of the present city of Linzi, is bounded by theZihe river in the east and by the Xishui in the west. The other twosides, north and south, had moats connecting the two rivers. The sitestarted to be investigated in the early 1960s, and more complete surveysassociated with partial excavations were undertaken in 1971. The reportsdescribe a different city plan from Qufu city (WW 1972/5).The city consisted of two parts, the Large City and the Small City.The circumference of the Large City is about 14,000 m while that of theSmall City is 7000 m. The combined area of both cities is 15 sq. km,almost twice the size of Qufu city. The shape of the city is anirregular HEIR, IRREGULAR. In Louisiana, irregular heirs are those who are neither testamentary nor legal, and who have been established by law to take the succession. See Civ. Code of Lo. art. 874. rectangle due to the trend of the river beds, so that thereare 24 corners in the city walls. Eleven city gates have been located,one or two in each side of each city. There are 10 primary roads: threein the Small City and seven in the Large City. Most main thoroughfareswere located in the northern and northeastern parts of the city.The Small City gives reason to believe it was a palatial city: thereis a high density of rammed-earth structural foundations in its northernpart. These complexes were centred around a large platform, now known asHuan'gongtai, elliptical el��lip��tic? or el��lip��ti��caladj.1. Of, relating to, or having the shape of an ellipse.2. Containing or characterized by ellipsis.3. a. in shape, about 84 m north--south and 14 mhigh above the ground. The Large City had no big structures; instead anumber of workshop sites are concentrated in the northeast part. Theseworkshops include iron foundries, bronze foundries and pottery and boneworkshops; the iron foundries predominate. Only one coin-minting sitewas found in the south of the Small City. The high density of culturaldeposits in the Large City suggests residential occupation andcommercial activities.There is little chronological chron��o��log��i��cal? also chron��o��log��icadj.1. Arranged in order of time of occurrence.2. Relating to or in accordance with chronology. evidence in the report. Nevertheless,we can be certain that the initial city walls were partly built beforethe early Chunqiu period, and strengthened during the Zhan'guoperiod. All the cemeteries excavated in the northeastern and southernparts of the Large City are dated to the Chunqiu Period.3 Xingzheng city, Zheng-Han StatesXingzheng city was capital of Zheng State during the Chunqiu perioduntil 375 BC (the Zhan'guo period), when the Marquis Aihou of HanState conquered Zheng. Then it became the capital city of Han. The sitestarted to be explored in the 1950s. Then a series of surveys andexcavations was undertaken starting in 1964, and a brief reportpublished in 1980 brings to light the structure and layout of theancient city (WWCKZL 1980/3). The shape of the city was stronglyinfluenced by the setting: it was located in a triangular area of theconfluence confluence/con��flu��ence/ (kon��floo-ins)1. a running together; a meeting of streams.con��fluent2. in embryology, the flowing of cells, a component process of gastrulation. of the Yushui and Huangshui rivers, and the city walls werebuilt along the banks of the rivers.The city of Xingzheng, about 5000 m east-west and about 4500 mnorth-south, is divided by a north-south partition A reserved part of disk or memory that is set aside for some purpose. On a PC, new hard disks must be partitioned before they can be formatted for the operating system, and the Fdisk utility is used for this task. into an East City (orOuter City) and a West City (or Inner City). There were over 1000architectural foundations investigated at the centre of the West City,some as large as 6000-7000 sq. m in area. To the south of the abovefoundation complex, archaeologists have found the remains of a smallcity wall, rectangular rec��tan��gu��lar?adj.1. Having the shape of a rectangle.2. Having one or more right angles.3. Designating a geometric coordinate system with mutually perpendicular axes. in shape, 500 m east-west and 320 m north-south.The excavators considered it as a palatial city. In the northwesternpart of the West City is the remains of a large rammed-earth platformwith a height of 8 m, now known as Shuzhuangtai, base length 135 mnorth-south, base width 80 m east-west. On this platform were foundpottery water wells and also clay water-pipes; it is presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. theremains of an important palace foundation.Many types of workshop sites, especially including jade workshops,were found in the East City, suggesting the same city layout as that ofLinzi city. Although the locations of most workshop sites are unclearfrom the brief report, metal foundry A semiconductor manufacturer that makes chips for third parties. It may be a large chip maker that sells its excess manufacturing capacity or one that makes chips exclusively for other companies. workshops seem to predominate; theyare quite large, varying between 40,000 and 100,000 sq. m in size(WWCKZL 1980/3: 60-62). Within the city a number of large tombsbelonging to Zheng nobility NOBILITY. An order of men in several countries to whom privileges are granted at the expense of the rest of the people. 2. The constitution of the United States provides that no state shall "grant any title of nobility; and no person can become a citizen of the (the Chunqiu period) have been recovered,while small burials dating to both the Chunqiu and Zhan'guo periodsare located outside the city.Xingzheng city wall, on the whole, is relatively well preserved, withthe highest remaining height of wall being 18 m. It has been shown tohave been built during both the Chunqiu and Zhan'guo periods. Onlythree city gates have been found so far, one located in the north wallof the West City, one in the east wall of the East City, and the thirdconnecting both parts of the city.4 Handan city, Zhao StateHandan city was founded in 386 BC (the Zhan'gou period) when theMarquis Jinghou of Zhao moved his capital to the southwest of thepresent city of Handan in southern Hebei Province Noun 1. Hebei province - a populous province in northeastern ChinaHebei, Hopeh, HopeiCathay, China, Communist China, mainland China, People's Republic of China, PRC, Red China - a communist nation that covers a vast territory in eastern Asia; the most . The ruins of the cityare on the alluvial plain Noun 1. alluvial plain - a flat resulting from repeated deposits of alluvial material by running wateralluvial flatflat - a level tract of land; "the salt flats of Utah" of the Qinhe river, west of the mountainTaihuanshan. Another river, Zhuhe, cuts off the site from the north,draining southeast and joining the Fuyanhe river with the Qinhe river.The ancient city was initially investigated by a group of Japanesearchaeologists in the 1940s. The ruin of Zhaowangcheng city, now knownas part of the whole city, was recognized then, and described in somedetail by Wheatley (1971: 142-4). In the 1960s and 1970s Chinesearchaeologists investigated the whole area and excavated part of thesite, and their great contributions brought to light a ruin of a largecity northeast of Zhaowangcheng. Therefore, is confirmed that theancient Handan city was composed of two parts: Zhaowangcheng as apalatial city and the Large North City as a commercial and residentialplace (KGXJK 1984/4).Unlike the other palatial cities we have seen above, Zhaowangchengconsisted of three small square segments, each about 1 sq. km in area.The wall of the west segment was relatively well preserved, with a widthof 16 m at its base. There are a total of 20 rammed-earth platforms andstructural foundations, most of which are concentrated in the westsegment. The largest one, called Longtai, is 260 m or so in length andwidth, with a height of 19 m. These platforms and structuralfoundations, in general arranged along a north-south axis, areassociated with cultural debris such as eaves-tiles and post stones.Eleven city gates were recovered, as well as two remains of streets.Most related to the Longtai platform and its associated structures.The Large North City is in the shape of a rectangle with an irregularcorner at the northwest. The city wall is 3 km east-west and 4.8 kmnorth-south; the average width of the wall base is 20 m. As might beexpected, iron foundries, workshops of pottery, bone and stone tools arefound in this area, but their certain locations are unclear in thereport. No burials dating to the Eastern Zhou have been found within thecity. However, royal tombs of Zhao are located some 15 km northwest ofthe ancient city, while a group of large tombs of the Zhao nobility arefound to the west outside the city.Unlike the Small City of ancient Linzi, Zhaowangcheng is notconnected to the Large North City, but the distance between the two isless than 100 m.5 Yanxiadu city, Yan StateThe site of Yanxiadu city, as the Lower capital of Yah State built inthe middle of the Zhan'gou period (presumably in 311 BC), islocated southeast of present Yixian County in Hebei. The ancient city isnow between North Yi river in the north and Middle Yi river in thesouth. Although the ancient city consisted of a West City (or the OuterCity) and an East City (or the Inner City), the East City seemsindependent itself, enclosing en��close? also in��closetr.v. en��closed, en��clos��ing, en��clos��es1. To surround on all sides; close in.2. To fence in so as to prevent common use: enclosed the pasture. the palatial area, workshops andresidential areas. Its chronological relationship with the West City hasbeen clarified by evidence from the archaeological stratigraphy stratigraphy,branch of geology specifically concerned with the arrangement of layered rocks (see stratification). Stratigraphy is based on the law of superposition, which states that in a normal sequence of rock layers the youngest is on top and the oldest on the ,suggesting that the West City's wall was built slightly later thanthat of the East City.The plan of the ancient city is a rough rectangle about 8 kmeast-west and about 4 km north-south (KGXB 1965/1). In the middle was anancient river canal, running from north to south and dividing the cityinto two parts. The west wall of the East City was built along the eastbank of the canal. In the northern part of the East City, a barrier wallcut across the city, 4460 m long east-west. Three city gates have beenfound, one in the northern wall, one in the southern wall and one in thebarrier wall of the East City. An additional gate was recovered in theWest City.In the northern part of the East City was a palatial centre,consisting of a series of rammed-earth platforms on a north-south axisfrom the Laomutai platform out of the northern city wall to theWuyangtai platform immediate south of the barrier wall. There are threelarge structural complexes to the northeast, southeast and southwest ofthe largest platform, Wuyangtai. In the western and southern parts ofthe East City are the remains of handcraft workshops for making ironobjects, coin-minting, and manufacturing bone artefacts and weapons. Theremains of residential occupation are located in the eastern andsouthern parts of the East City. Two large groups of Yan cemeteries arefound in the northwest corner of the East City, separated from the cityby the ancient river canals and walls. The cultural remains in the WestCity are extremely poor, only two sites of residential occupation andfive tombs, which were found in the southeastern corner adjacent to theEast city. Three ancient river canals and four streets have formed thetransport network of the city.Yanxiadu city was abandoned around the late Zhan'gou period,presumably due to the collapse of Yan State.6 Jinancheng city, Chu StateThe last city we are exploring is Jinancheng city, the ancientcapital of Chu State. The city was called Yingdu at the time when it wasrounded around 689 BC (the late Chunqiu period). Beginning in the 1950sChinese archaeologists undertook many surveys at this site, and a greatdeal more work took place here in the 1970s. In 1979 an extensiveinvestigation with some test excavations was completed, and the reportwas published in 1982 (KGXB 1982/3-4).Jinancheng, the largest ancient city in south China, is located inthe present Jiangli County of Hubei province. Unlike thoseaforementioned a��fore��men��tioned?adj.Mentioned previously.n.The one or ones mentioned previously.aforementionedAdjectivementioned beforeAdj. 1. cities which the rivers surround outside, the Zuhe riverruns from the north to the centre of the city, then meets the Xingqaoheriver coming from the south, and the two join together as the Longqaoheriver continuing to the east. These three water streams all areconnected to the moat surrounding the city.The wall of the city was also a rough rectangle with round corners,4450 m east-west and 3588 m north-south. The highest remaining wall is7.6 m. Among 28 gaps along the circumference of the city, seven wereidentified as city gates, including two water gates in the southern andnorthern walls, respectively. Based upon chronological studies, the citywall was constructed in the late Chunqiu period or in the turning periodbetween the Chunqiu and Zhan'guo.There are a total of 84 rammed-earth platforms in the city, 61 ofwhich are concentrated in the southeast part. The largest there was 130m long, indicating that the southeastern part was the principle area ofancient palaces. A portion of a palatial city wall, in the north andeast of the area, has a total length of 1300 m and width of 9 m and isassociated with a moat. The density of 15 large structural foundationsin the northeastern part of the city is also suggestive of suggestive ofDecision making adjective Referring to a pattern by LM or imaging, that the interpreter associates with a particular–usually malignant lesion. See Aunt Millie approach, Defensive medicine. anotherpalace complex. In between the two palace areas, there were workshopsites for the making of tiles and pottery, evidenced by a number ofkilns and water-wells near the stream Longqaohe. Metal-casting foundriesassociated with a few platforms were identified in the southwesternportion of the city. Most residential occupations are located in thenorthern and western parts of the city. Seven burials from thenorthwestern part have been excavated, dated to the Middle or LateChunqiu period. Many large groups of Chu cemeteries of all socialclasses dating to the Zhan'guo period are found outside of thecity, over 600 of which have been excavated (Jianglin 1984).According to the Classic text Shiji: Baiqi-Wangjian Lezhuang,Jinancheng was captured by the Qin troops led by general Baiqi in 278 BC(the Late Zhan'guo period). Chu State, then, moved its capital toCheng in the east. Within Jinancheng, no cultural features or debris ofthe Late Zhan'guo period, and after, were found during thearchaeological investigations.Some early urbanization patterns: archaeological implicationsAs we see from their city plans, these cities had nothing in commonin size and shape, number of city gates and streets, orientation system,or drainage system Noun 1. drainage system - a system of watercourses or drains for carrying off excess watersystem - instrumentality that combines interrelated interacting artifacts designed to work as a coherent entity; "he bought a new stereo system"; "the system consists of a during the Eastern Zhou period. Only Qufu city isclose to the royal construction rules described in Kaogong Ji. Theexcavators of the Qufu site claimed that it, to some degree, reflectedthe orientation system of the Western Zhou city. By comparing the maincharacteristics of these six cities, certain patterns of earlyurbanization are summarized in this section.1 With the great increase in urban population, the city becomeslargerThe smallest city is Qufu, the earliest to appear, while Yanxiadu,founded in the middle Zhan'guo period, became the largest. Theaverage size of the Eastern Zhou cities is about 16 sq. km. According tothe text Zhan'guo Ce: Qice, it was recorded that there were 70,000families in Linzi city during the Eastern Zhou. If four members wereaccounted to a family, the population of Linzi was 280,000 people or sowithin nearly 3,000,000 sq. m of residential area. Then the density inLinzi is calculated as 11 sq. m per person, a remarkable density ofpopulation for the Eastern Zhou city. Applying this density to Qufu, wesee the population growing from 49,000 in the Western Zhou, through to98,000 in the Chunqiu period, to 125,000 in the Zhan'guo period bycalculating the increasing areas of residence occupation throughout thetime. The largest Zhan'guo city, Yanxiadu, seems to have housed apopulation of 316,000 with a total of residential areas of 3,507,000 sq.m. Although these rough estimates are not absolute figures, it still canbe seen that there was a tendency of population growth in a short time-- the result of urbanization.TABLE 3. Sizes of the early cities. wall (km) circumference area east west north south (km) (sq. km)Qufu 2.53 2.43 3.56 3.25 11.77 8.75Linzi (L) 5.53 2.81 3.32 2.82 21.43 15.0(S) 2.19 2.37 1.40 1.40Xingzheng (E) 4.30 NA 2.40 NA NA 16.88(W) 5.10 4.30 1.80 2.90Handan (L) 4.80 5.60 1.82 3.09 NA 18.88(P-W) 1.42 1.43 1.39 1.37Yanxiadu (E) 3.98 5.45 4.41 4.20 18.04 22.68(W) 2.68 4.55 1.75Jinancheng 3.70 3.75 3.55 4.50 15.51 16.0L = Large City; S = Small City; E = East City; W = West City: P-W = West Cityof the Palatial CityTABLE 4. Major cultural occupation areas at Qufu. palatial area residential area workshop area (sq. m) (sq. m) (sq. m)Western Zhou ? 545,000 147,000Chunqiu 282,000 1,087,000 239,000Zhan'guo 342,000 1,386,000 356,000TABLE 5. Compared orientation of palace city/area, workshops, and residenceoccupations within the cities. palace city/area workshops residenceQufu central-south north, northwest north, east, westLinzi southwest northeast northeastXingzheng northwest east, south eastHandan southwest east, northeast east, northeastYanxiadu north central, east east, southJinancheng southeast, north central, west west, northTABLE 6. Types and sites of handcraft workshops of the cities (exceptJinancheng). Qufu Linzi Xingzheng Handan Yanxiadu CQ ZG CQ ZG CQ ZG CQ ZG CQ ZGiron 0 2 4 6 0 1 3 3bronze 1 1 2 0 1 1 0 0pottery 1 0 0 0 present 3 1bone 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 1weapon 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3coinage 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1jade 0 0 0 0 present 0 0stone 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0total 3 4 10 10 2 3 8 8CQ = Chunqiu; ZG = Zhan'guo2 In some cases the plan form produced by the layout of city walls isirregular and apparently influenced by its, topographic topographicdescribing or pertaining to special regions. factorsCity gates and streets were no longer indicative of a regal re��gal?adj.1. Of or relating to a monarch; royal.2. Belonging to or befitting a monarch: regal attire.3. Magnificent; splendid. plan ofconstruction during the Zhan'guo period. Unlike what literarydescriptions suggest, city walls conform to Verb 1. conform to - satisfy a condition or restriction; "Does this paper meet the requirements for the degree?"fit, meetcoordinate - be co-ordinated; "These activities coordinate well" topographic-hydrographic anddemographic features, rather than forming a standardized, arbitrarysquare or rectangular shape. The rivers were thought of as naturalmoats, so that the trends of rivers were the major factor in how theshape of the city developed. In other cases, as seen in both Handan andJinancheng, where the rivers cut through the sites, cities remained inthe regular form of a square or rectangle. The establishment of citygates and streets, however, no longer followed the regulations of royalconstruction rules. Major street networks with associated city gateswere usually in the concentrated areas of commercial activity andresidence. Nevertheless, certain street(s) linked with the centre of thepalace area were still imperial. In Qufu, the royal road wassignificantly wider than the others, 15 m in width rather than theaverage 10 m of others. But this diversity did not exist in Linzi, wherethe commercial streets were more magnificent than the streets in thepalatial city, nor in Handan, Yanxiadu and Jinancheng. It is apparentthat the royal system had been challenged by growing commerce, tradingand migration in the new style of urban life.3 The palatial city/area became a more and more irregular andinformal construct through timeIn these six cities, the location of the palatial city/area presentsno information at all about their royalty. There are two types ofpalatial cities. First, at Qufu and Yanxiadu, the palatial area iswithin the cities, mixed with commercial and residential areas. Second,the palatial cities/areas are separate from the large city, whichpresumably functioned as the commercial and residential areas. Thesecond pattern is dominant in the state-capital cities during thisperiod. It is reasonable to regard this change as the result ofurbanization, the lords keeping themselves from the crowds in the city.We see early palaces without walls in Qufu which contrast sharply withthose enclosed en��close? also in��closetr.v. en��closed, en��clos��ing, en��clos��es1. To surround on all sides; close in.2. To fence in so as to prevent common use: enclosed the pasture. with walls in other later cities. Another change inpalatial constitution through time is the appearance of additionalcomplexes in most of the later cities such as Xingzheng, Handan andJinancheng. While the explanations of these changes can hardly be madeyet, it is certain that the ruling class had failed to keep its royalprerogatives as represented by constitution of the palatial area.4 The specialization A career option pursued by some attorneys that entails the acquisition of detailed knowledge of, and proficiency in, a particular area of law.As the law in the United States becomes increasingly complex and covers a greater number of subjects, more and more attorneys are of urban handcrafts represents to a certaindegree the multiple functions of the cityThe handcraft types in each cities mainly consist of manufactures foriron, bronze, pottery, bone, weapons, coinage, jade and even stoneproducts. The workshops were no doubt dominated by iron foundries, whichwere well developed especially in the Zhan'guo period. The writtensources make it clear that Xingzheng, Linzi and Handan were the centresof iron production (Yang 1983: 324). The archaeological data show thatthe sites of iron workshops are quite large. During the Zhan'guoperiod, the majority of objects produced in iron were farming tools(Yang 1983: 34-6), goods which must have been traded for a grain supplyfrom farmers outside the urban area. In addition, the first appearanceof coin-minting workshops in Linzi and Yanxiadu suggests that duringEastern Zhou reciprocal Bilateral; two-sided; mutual; interchanged.Reciprocal obligations are duties owed by one individual to another and vice versa. A reciprocal contract is one in which the parties enter into mutual agreements. exchange was replaced by market exchange. It iseasy to imagine that the markets in urban centres were amplified to meetthe increasing need for iron tools. Pottery and bone objects, as well asjades, must also have formed a large portion of the market. The EasternZhou city, therefore, had a commercial rather than a purely politicalfunction. Meanwhile, the defensive function of Yanxiadu city can also beproved by a couple of weapon-manufacturing workshops, which have neverbeen found in the other capital cities. The rich weapon assemblage wasassociated with prisoner-chains, defensive structures such as thebarrier-wall and guarded gates, and unusual palatial complexes. Allthese features distinguish Yanxiadu from the other cities, indicatingthat its function was defence as well as commerce (WW 1982/8).TABLE 7. Major feature sites of Qufu location area (sq. m) phase (EW x NS)I foundation complexesNo.1 central 550 x 500 CQ, ZGNo.2 central 100 x 115 (E) ZG 95 x 90 (w) 120 x 40 (S) 30 x 50 (SW)No.3 central 80 x 16 ZGNo.4 central-south 140 x 160 ZGNo.5 south 70 x 80 (E) CQ, ZG 25 x 45 (W)No.6 south 33 x 40 CQ, ZGNo.7 south 5 x 55 ?No.8 central 200 x 100 (S) ZG 270 x 80 (N)No.9 east 90 x 55 (S) ZG 46 x 80 (E) 75 x 60 (N)II workshopsIron.1 central-east 450 x 120 ZGIron.2 central-west 250 x 200 ZGBronze.1 north 350 x 250 WZ, CQ, ZGBronze.2 northwest 70 x 200 WZ, CQ, ZGBone.1 northwest 600 x 250 ZGBone.2 northwest 60 x 200 CQPottery.1 west 400 x 400 CQPottery.1 northwest 300 x 150 WZ, CQIII residential occupationsNo.1 northwest 250 x 400 WZ, CQ, ZGNo.2 northwest 320 x 200 ZGNo.3 north 130 x 400 CQ, ZGNo.4 north 900 x 400 WZ, CQ, ZGNo.5 northeast 900 x 400 CQ, ZGNo.6 northeast 150 x 150 WZ, CQ, ZGNo.7 west 250 x 250 ZGNo.8 west 190 x 250 ZGNo.9 west 250 x 250 WZ, CQ, ZGNo.10 east 400 x 200 (N) CQ, ZG 250 x 200 (S)No.11 east 250 x 200 ZGIV cemeteriesNo.1 northwest 1200 x 1000 WZ, CQ, ZGNo.2 west 50 x 30 WZ, CQNo.3 west NA WZ, CQNo.4 west NA WZ, CQWZ = Western Zhou; CQ = Chunqiu; ZG = Zhan'guo5 The drainage systems become more important as the outcome of earlyurbanizationThe six cities are bounded or linked by rivers, one of thecharacteristics that distinguishes the Eastern Zhou cities from thecities of the Shang and early Western Zhou Dynasties (Ma 1985). Theserivers, along with the man-made or natural ancient river channels withinthe city, formed well-designed drainage networks, such as those in Qufu,Yanxiadu and Jinancheng. As natural moats, the rivers acted also assources of water and, especially important, as transport routes (Si1989). There is no doubt that these considerations were in accordance Accordance is Bible Study Software for Macintosh developed by OakTree Software, Inc.[]As well as a standalone program, it is the base software packaged by Zondervan in their Bible Study suites for Macintosh. with the process of urbanization. The usual place of workshops close tothe water sources, as seen in Qufu, Xingzheng, Yanxiadu and Jinancheng,is not coincidental co��in��ci��den��tal?adj.1. Occurring as or resulting from coincidence.2. Happening or existing at the same time.co��in . The water gateways in Jinancheng are evidence thatthe rivers were used as access to the cities. Thus, the networks ofdrainage systems stimulated the process of urbanization, which, in turn,brought more demands for improvement of the drainage systems.6 It becomes regular practice that the Zhan'guo burials,including both large royal tombs and public burials, were placed outsidethe citiesThe change in urban cemeteries has not been given attention inprevious research. The evidence from the six cities shows that themajority of cemeteries within the cities are dated to the Chunqiuperiod, whereas the tombs of the Zhan'guo period were usuallyplaced outside the cities. This change is clear in the case of Qufu. Thetwo cemeteries within the Linzi city totally belonged to Qi lords ofWestern Zhou and the Chunqiu period, while the majority of over 100tombs outside the city are dated to the Zhan'guo period (Wang1984b: 287). The case in Xingzheng is even more clear: in the Chunqiuperiod the ruler's tombs of Zheng were in the cities and the publicsmall burials were outside the western city wall, whereas bothclasses' tombs in Han State in the Zhan'guo period wereoutside the southern boundary of the city. Handan and Jinancheng citiesare typical as well (KG 1962/12; 1973/6; 1980/5; 1982/6; Gou 1982).Although we see Zhan'guo tombs within the confines con��fine?v. con��fined, con��fin��ing, con��finesv.tr.1. To keep within bounds; restrict: Please confine your remarks to the issues at hand.See Synonyms at limit. of Yanxiaducity, compared to the high population, a mere 23 tombs in thenorthwestern part of the East City means nothing. Significantly, in theregion southeast outside Yanxiadu city is a quite large site ofZhan'guo cemeteries, measuring 550 x 300 m with a total of 480tombs (WW 1965/9). All these data provide a pattern that should be notignored. This pattern probably indicates the limited supply of urbanland due to the rise in commercial activities, and the search for'peace and quiet' land for the dead.The development of Qufu city: an example of early urbanizationQufu has the longest history among these six Eastern Zhou cities. Therich cultural remains from different phases provide us with muchaccurate information about the process of early urbanization.Chronological studies of cultural features within Qufu made clear thedevelopment of Qufu city.A great number of early Western Zhou artefacts (c. 1600-1000 BC) arefound within the city, as well as many burials. Their distribution isevidence that the earliest inhabitants :This article is about the video game. For Inhabitants of housing, see Residency Inhabitants is an independently developed commercial puzzle game created by S+F Software. DetailsThe game is based loosely on the concepts from SameGame. of Qufu were concentrated in thewestern, northwestern and northern portions of the city. Not until lateWestern Zhou (c. 1000-770 BC) did the early occupation extend to thenortheastern part. The distribution pattern of 11 city gates suggeststhat they were made for the transport convenience of early inhabitantsin the northern part of the city.Within later Western Zhou Qufu, only three workshops are found, twofor manufacturing bronze artefacts and one for pottery. This factstrongly reflects the limited number of specializations at that period.And these workshops are located in the inhabited in��hab��it��ed?adj.Having inhabitants; lived in: a sparsely inhabited plain.Adj. 1. inhabited - having inhabitants; lived in; "the inhabited regions of the earth" occupations to thenorth.Entering the Chunqiu period, the city was extended toward thenortheastern and eastern parts. Although there is no evidence to showwhether the four streets (3, 4, 5, 10) intersecting in��ter��sect?v. in��ter��sect��ed, in��ter��sect��ing, in��ter��sectsv.tr.1. To cut across or through: The path intersects the park.2. in the east appearedat this time, the new settlements here (3, 5, 10) certainly hadsomething to do with the thoroughfares and the city gates here. Theworkshops in the northwest changed, increasing the size of potteryworkshops and adding a bone workshop. But the cemeteries were notchanged.The large structural foundation complex in the central area has beenpartly excavated, and a portion of two palace foundations dating to theChunqiu period unearthed. The site includes many platform bricks,roofing-material such as tiles, and pottery water-pipes for drainage ofthe palace. Three other platform foundations, appearing in the south andthe east, are believed to be related to the palace, although their truefunction needs to be further explored.The development of Qufu during the Zhan'guo period occurred inthe western and southern portions of the city. More large palatialstructures appeared in the central area, arranged on both sides of thestreet that is considered as the Royal Gateway. Another inhabited centrewas formed in the west, comparable with the one in the east. The size ofthe bone workshop increased, and a new residential occupation settledthat was tied to the workshop.There were two outstanding changes during this time. First, largeiron foundries occurred near the palace area; some rammed-earthstructural foundations which related to the workshops make theexcavators believe that the iron foundries were authorized andcontrolled by the administrators of the State. Second, cemeteries thatexisted in the west were replaced by residential areas. Burials of theZhan'guo period must have occurred outside the city, even if thereis unfortunately no direct evidence. However, with the great increase inthe urban population, the small number of Zhan'guo burials found inthe traditional location does not make sense.As I mentioned above, Qufu was founded as early as the late WesternZhou. The ruler of Lu state tried to keep the Royal Zhou system on theold track. The city-layout plan shows this. The establishment of citygates and streets and arrangement of palatial areas andcommerce/residence areas reflect this attempt in the Western Zhouperiod. But the outcome of the urbanization that occurred in the EasternZhou was not the end. The new inhabitants did not care about the royalconstitution of the city; instead they built their new settlements whereit would be better for themselves, that is, commercial centres and easytransportation inter-connections were the first considerations. Whilethe location of the workshops influenced the newcomers'settlements, more new immigrants into the city prompted the developmentof workshops. With the increasing demands on restricted land during theZhan'guo period, the new residents had to move to the regions wherethe old cemeteries were.ConclusionIt is well known that the Eastern Zhou dynasty was the period ofsocial change in ancient China (Hsu 1965; Yang 1983). One of thesechanges was the individualization individualization,n the process of tailoring remedies or treatments to cure a set of symptoms in an indiv-idual instead of basing treatment on the common features of the disease. of farming (Chang 1976: 60). Mostfarmers who lost or abandoned their lands must have looked foropportunities in urban areas. The new technological revolution of ironmanufacture enlarged the scale of the handcraft workshops in the cityand stimulated the rise of markets for exchanging the products. Frequentcivil wars during this period were also preconditions, in that farmersforced to leave their lands became immigrants to the cities.The impact of urbanization on the city constitution is easilyobserved from archaeological evidence. In a word, the city layout atthis time was a reflection of adaptation of early urbanization. Theformula of royal construction systems only remained in the imaginationof the ruling class as they dwelt dwelt?v.A past tense and a past participle of dwell. on their royalty, even if it in turnwas put into effect in the Han Dynasty (Wang 1983; Liu 1987). TheEastern Zhou cities were characterized char��ac��ter��ize?tr.v. character��ized, character��iz��ing, character��iz��es1. To describe the qualities or peculiarities of: characterized the warden as ruthless.2. by unique patterns differing fromthe Shang and Western Zhou cities, distinguishing features in the citylayout that are the result of the process of early urbanization. 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