Effects of noncontingent reinforcement and functional communication training on problem behavior and mands.

Effects of noncontingent reinforcement and functional communication training on problem behavior and mands. Abstract Two children with developmental delays and a history of problembehavior participated in this study to examine the efficacy of combiningtwo treatments demonstrated to reduce problem behavior: noncontingentreinforcement reinforcement/re��in��force��ment/ (-in-fors��ment) in behavioral science, the presentation of a stimulus following a response that increases the frequency of subsequent responses, whether positive to desirable events, or and functional communication training. At issue waswhether the noncontingent delivery of an alternative preferred stimulus stimulus/stim��u��lus/ (stim��u-lus) pl. stim��uli ? [L.] any agent, act, or influence which produces functional or trophic reaction in a receptor or an irritable tissue. and reinforcement of mands increased the rate of mands, and suppressed sup��press?tr.v. sup��pressed, sup��press��ing, sup��press��es1. To put an end to forcibly; subdue.2. To curtail or prohibit the activities of.3. problem behavior prior to and during the schedule thinning ofnoncontingent reinforcement. The necessity of extinction extinction,in biology, disappearance of species of living organisms. Extinction occurs as a result of changed conditions to which the species is not suited. to obtainsuppression suppression/sup��pres��sion/ (su-presh��un)1. the act of holding back or checking.2. sudden stoppage of a secretion, excretion, or normal discharge.3. of problem behavior also was examined. For bothparticipants, noncontingent reinforcement using an alternative (or,arbitrary) preferred stimulus increased manding maintained by access toattention and decreased problem behavior. Extinction may be necessary tomaintain response suppression during thinning of the noncontingentreinforcement schedule. Preliminary results, as well as the potentialimpact for practitioners and suggestions for future research areprovided. KEY WORDS: noncontingent reinforcement, functional communicationtraining, problem behavior, developmental disabilities, extinction ********** Two interventions that frequently are used to reduce problembehavior and/or increase appropriate alternative behavior are functionalcommunication training (FCT FCT Faculdade de Ci��ncias e Tecnologia (Portuguese University)FCT Fundamentals of Computation TheoryFCT Funda??o para a Ci��ncia e a Tecnologia (Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation); Carr CARR CarrierCARR Customer Acceptance Readiness ReviewCARR Carrollton RailroadCARR Corrective Action Request and ReportCARR City Area Rural Rides (Texas)CARR Configuration Audit Readiness ReviewCARR Customer Acceptance Requirements Review & Durand, 1985) and noncontingentreinforcement (NCR (NCR Corporation, Dayton, OH, www.ncr.com) A technology company specializing in financial terminal transactions, retail systems and data warehousing. Until the late 1990s, NCR was heavily invested in the hardware side of the industry, known worldwide as a major manufacturer of computers ; Tucker, Sigafoos, & Bushell, 1998; Vollmer,Iwata, Zarcone, Smith, & Mazaleski, 1993). Functional communicationtraining involves training a response (i.e., a mand) maintained byaccess to the item requested. For example, if problem behavior isdetermined, through the results of functional assessment, to bemaintained by access to attention, the individual might be taught tosign "play," resulting in adult attention. Noncontingentreinforcement is the response-independent delivery of a preferredstimulus according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. either a periodic (i.e., fixed-time) or anaperiodic a��pe��ri��od��icadj.Not occurring periodically.ape��ri��od (i.e., variable-time) schedule. Functional communication training involves conducting a functionalanalysis (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1994) andsubsequently delivering the maintaining reinforcer reinforcer/re��in��forc��er/ (-in-for��ser) any stimulus that produces reinforcement, a positive r. being a desirable event strengthening responses preceding its occurrence and a negative r. contingent upon Adj. 1. contingent upon - determined by conditions or circumstances that follow; "arms sales contingent on the approval of congress"contingent on, dependant on, dependant upon, dependent on, dependent upon, depending on, contingent amore appropriate alternative response. It is a highly preferableintervention A procedure used in a lawsuit by which the court allows a third person who was not originally a party to the suit to become a party, by joining with either the plaintiff or the defendant. in that it is effective in reducing problem behavior with avariety of functions (e.g., attention, Carr & Durand, 1985; andescape/avoidance, Lalli, Casey, & Kates, 1997), generalizes acrosssetting and time (Durand & Carr, 1991), and maintains over time(Durand & Carr, 1992). Functional communication training is moreeffective when combined with some other intervention (e.g., extinctionor punishment, Hagopian, Fisher, Thibault Sullivan, Acquisto, &LeBlanc, 1998). However, interventions including extinction orpunishment may be more difficult for parents or teachers to implementconsistently (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 1987; Miltenberger, 1997). Like FCT, NCR often is combined with other interventions, mainlyextinction. Furthermore, the stimulus delivered in NCR is most often thestimulus demonstrated to maintain problem behavior in a functionalanalysis, but alternative (or "arbitrary") stimuli also havebeen used effectively (Fischer, Iwata, & Mazaleski, 1997; Hanley,Piazza piazzaOpen square or marketplace, surrounded by buildings, in an Italian town or city. It was equivalent to the plaza of Spanish-speaking countries. The term became more widely used in the 16th–18th century, denoting any large open space with buildings around it. , & Fisher, 1997). Hanley et al. (1997), for example, comparedNCR with alternative stimuli to NCR with the maintaining stimulus usingan alternating-treatments design with two individuals exhibiting problembehavior maintained by attention. In each component, there were noprogrammed consequences following problem behavior (i.e., extinction).Both interventions were effective in reducing problem behavior. Continued research surrounding sur��round?tr.v. sur��round��ed, sur��round��ing, sur��rounds1. To extend on all sides of simultaneously; encircle.2. To enclose or confine on all sides so as to bar escape or outside communication.n. the response-independent delivery ofalternative stimuli, however, still is warranted as it has been studiedrelatively little. But it has at least two advantages over the use ofthe maintaining reinforcer. First, NCR with an alternative stimulus maybe implemented even if the maintaining reinforcer cannot be identifiedor cannot be manipulated (e.g., problem behavior maintained by sensory sensory/sen��so��ry/ (sen��sor-e) pertaining to sensation. sen��so��ryadj.1. Of or relating to the senses or sensation.2. reinforcement). Additionally, the alternative stimulus may be deliveredif the maintaining reinforcer is impossible, impractical im��prac��ti��cal?adj.1. Unwise to implement or maintain in practice: Refloating the sunken ship proved impractical because of the great expense.2. , orinconvenient in��con��ven��ient?adj.Not convenient, especially:a. Not accessible; hard to reach.b. Not suited to one's comfort, purpose, or needs: inconvenient to have no phone in the kitchen. to use. For example, noncontingent access to an alternativestimulus (e.g., preferred toy) might help to suppress To stop something or someone; to prevent, prohibit, or subdue.To suppress evidence is to keep it from being admitted at trial by showing either that it was illegally obtained or that it is irrelevant. evenattention-maintained behavior when the parent is on the telephone or theteacher is helping other students. Because NCR does not result in increases in more appropriate andfunctional behavior, some researchers have combined NCR and FCT (Goh,Iwata, & DeLeon, 2000; Marcus & Vollmer, 1996). This combinationof interventions, however, only has been implemented with NCR with amaintaining reinforcer (not using an alternative stimulus). Marcus andVollmer (1996), for example, combined the fixed-time (FT) delivery ofthe maintaining reinforcer and FCT with three individuals withdisabilities exhibiting problem behavior. They initially used a dense FTschedule but decreased the rate of reinforcer delivery rapidly. Therewere no programmed consequences for the occurrence of the problembehavior (i.e., extinction). Problem behavior decreased and mandingincreased for all participants. Goh et al. (2000) further evaluated therelation between NCR and manding by manipulating the FT schedule withwhich the maintaining reinforcer was delivered. Specifically, theyimplemented NCR on a dense schedule for extended periods (rather thanquickly initiating schedule thinning, as was done by Marcus and Vollmer,1996). Although self-injurious behavior (SIB sib:see clan. ) decreased substantially,mands did not occur reliably until the rate of response-independentdelivery was decreased. Research has demonstrated the utility of both FCT and NCR with analternative stimulus, but the two interventions have not been combinedand evaluated systematically with and without extinction. Yet, combiningthe two interventions may allow each to overcome the disadvantages ofthe other, thus increasing the likelihood of success. The inclusion ofFCT to an intervention including the FT delivery of an alternativepreferred stimulus would allow participants to continue to have some(limited) access to the maintaining reinforcer. It also would allow forthe development of appropriate behavior, extending beyond only aresponse-reduction procedure. With such a procedure, if extinction isused, mands are likely to occur, even if the alternative stimulus isdelivered on a dense schedule, as the reinforcer maintaining problembehavior is not obtained otherwise. It also is possible, however, thatextinction may be unnecessary, as NCR and FCT alone may result insuppression of problem behavior. Furthermore, the addition of NCR mayenhance an FCT intervention by decreasing the possibility of problembehavior insofar in��so��far?adv.To such an extent.Adv. 1. insofar - to the degree or extent that; "insofar as it can be ascertained, the horse lung is comparable to that of man"; "so far as it is reasonably practical he should practice that highly preferred items are available without aresponse requirement. Therefore, combining NCR of an alternative stimulus and FCT may beuseful for at least three reasons by addressing some of the limitationsof either treatment used in isolation. First, alternative (appropriate)behaviors would be reinforced explicitly (through FCT). Second, theinclusion of NCR should reduce the likelihood of extinction bursts(Vollmer et al., 1993) that otherwise might be observed in FCT. Third,the possibility of combining these procedures, and employing them, then,without extinction has valuable implications. It may be easier forparents and teachers to implement without extinction in that, ratherthan having to consistently extinguish ExtinguishRetire or pay off debt. behavior, they could continue toreinforce problem behavior as they had done prior to intervention. Thus,the purpose of the present study was to determine if NCR of analternative stimulus and FCT would suppress problem behavior without theuse of extinction. In addition, this study examined the extent to whichmands resulting in the maintaining reinforcer occur when the alternativestimulus was delivered response independently. Method Participants and Setting Participants were two children with developmental delays exhibitingproblem behavior. Lyle was a 13-year-old male with mild to moderatemental retardation mental retardation,below average level of intellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in the skills necessary for daily living. who exhibited SIB, aggression aggression,a form of behavior characterized by physical or verbal attack. It may appear either appropriate and self-protective, even constructive, as in healthy self-assertiveness, or inappropriate and destructive. , and propertydestruction. Lyle followed simple one- and two-step directions andfrequently emitted vocalizations but had few intelligible words. He usedabout ten functional signs to communicate. Nicholas was a two-year-oldmale with global developmental delays functioning in the severe toprofound range of mental retardation. Nicholas was nonambulatory and hadno vocal language. He used one modified expressive sign for"more." Nicholas exhibited SIB, aggression, and disruptive disruptive/dis��rup��tive/ (-tiv)1. bursting apart; rending.2. causing confusion or disorder. behavior. The participants were not taking any medications for thepurposes of behavior management behavior managementPsychology Any nonpharmacologic maneuver–eg contingency reinforcement–that is intended to correct behavioral problems in a child with a mental disorder–eg, ADHD. See Attention-deficit-hyperactivity syndrome. and no medication changes were madeduring the course of the study. Sessions for Lyle were conducted at his speech therapy center in anoffice containing two tables, two chairs, office materials, a lockedcabinet, and toys and materials relevant to the session. Sessions forNicholas were conducted in a clinic room containing only materialsrelevant to the session. Sessions conducted with both participantslasted 10 min and were conducted for approximately three to four hoursper day, approximately three days per week (for Lyle) or two to fourhours per day, approximately two days per week (for Nicholas). Thus,several sessions were conducted per day and each phase lasted severaldays or weeks (with the exception of Nicholas' one-day preferenceassessment). Experimental Design The study consisted of three phases: functional analysis,preference assessment, and the intervention: evaluation of NCR withalternative stimuli and maintaining reinforcers. This final phaseconsisted of testing the alternative stimulus, baseline, FCT, andfinally an alternating-treatments design used to compare the effects ofNCR using the maintaining reinforcer with NCR using the alternativestimulus. Response Definitions, Data Collection, and Interobserver Agreement Frequency of aggression, SIB, disruption disruption/dis��rup��tion/ (dis-rup��shun) a morphologic defect resulting from the extrinsic breakdown of, or interference with, a developmental process. , and manding were codedusing a continuous recording system. Aggression was defined as (a)biting-closure of the upper and lower teeth around the skin of anotherperson (Lyle), (b) hitting-forceful contact between an open hand and thebody of another person (Lyle and Nicholas), (c) pinching-closure of thefingers and thumb around the skin of another person (Lyle and Nicholas),(d) scratching-dragging the fingernails across the skin of anotherperson (Lyle and Nicholas), (e) throwing-throwing objects landing within1 ft of another person (Lyle), and (f) hair pulling-grasping the hair ofanother person and pulling (Lyle and Nicholas). SIB was defined as headbanging-forceful contact between the head and the wall, floor, oranother object (Lyle and Nicholas), (b) biting-closure of the upper andlower teeth around one's own skin (Lyle), (c) hitting-forcefulcontact between an open hand and one's own body (Lyle), and (d)pinching-closure of the fingers and thumb around one's own skin(Lyle and Nicholas). Disruption was defined as (a)screaming-high-pitched sound, louder than normal conversational tone,and lasting no more than 1-2 s (Nicholas), (b) throwing objects-throwingobjects not designed for throwing (Lyle), (c) banging objects-forcefullybanging two objects together or one object into the wall or floor loudenough to be heard (Lyle), and (d) overturning objects-upsetting largeobjects (e.g., table, chair) from their rightful, upright uprightsaid of limb joints and bones, especially in the horse. Indicates a lack of angulation in the joint, e.g. upright hock, or slope in a bone, e.g. upright pastern. In horses, often associated with a bumpy ride and a tendency to joint injury and lameness. position(Lyle). Mands were defined as a completed picture icon exchangeincluding: reaching for the icon, grasping graspinga similar equine neurosis to windsucking; the horse grasps a fixed object with its teeth, but does not swallow air. the icon, putting the icon inthe therapist's hand, and releasing the icon (Lyle and Nicholas).Therapist responses also were recorded. Sessions were videotaped forlater coding by trained graduate and undergraduate students. Datacollectors were trained in the coding system Noun 1. coding system - a system of signals used to represent letters or numbers in transmitting messagescode - a coding system used for transmitting messages requiring brevity or secrecy and data were coded ondesktop or handheld computers using a real-time data collection program. Observers were six graduate and undergraduate students. Some hadhad previous training in coding, but all were supervised su��per��vise?tr.v. su��per��vised, su��per��vis��ing, su��per��vis��esTo have the charge and direction of; superintend.[Middle English *supervisen, from Medieval Latin by graduatestudents with previous experience coding and supervising coders. Priorto initiating data collection, observers were trained to reach 80% orhigher agreement for all target responses for three consecutive sessionsprior to the start of data collection for the present study.Interobserver agreement was assessed in approximately 30% of thesessions by having two observers collect data independently butconcurrently. Agreement was calculated by partitioning To divide a resource or application into smaller pieces. See partition, application partitioning and PDQ. sessions intocontinuous 10-s intervals and comparing observers' records on aninterval-by-interval basis. Within each interval, the smaller number ofresponses was divided by the larger number, and the resultingproportions were averaged across intervals to obtain a percentageagreement score. Mean agreement scores for Lyle's problem behavior were 97%,89%, and 92% in the functional analysis, baseline, and treatment phases,respectively (range=85%-100%). Mean agreement scores for stimulusdelivery for Lyle were 89% and 91% for baseline and treatment phases,respectively (range=87%-100%). The mean agreement score for Lyle'smanding was 96% (range=92%-100%). Mean agreement scores for therapistresponses in the functional analysis for Lyle were 99%, 97%, 99%, 97%,and 100% for prompts, attention delivery, tangible delivery, escape, andtangible removal, respectively. Mean agreement scores for Nicholas's problem behavior were99%, 95%, and 96% in the functional analysis, baseline, and treatmentphases, respectively (range=86%-100%). Mean agreement scores forstimulus delivery for Nicholas were 95% and 97% for baseline andtreatment phases, respectively (range=86%-100%). The mean agreementscore for Nicholas's manding was 99% (range=96%-100%). Meanagreement scores for therapist responses in the functional analysis forNicholas were 94%, 98%, 100%, 100%, and 98% for prompts, attentiondelivery, tangible delivery, escape, and tangible removal, respectively. Procedure For simplicity, the contingencies in place during the testing andintervention phases of the experiment are presented in Appendix 1. Functional Analysis. A functional analysis (FA) was conducted witheach participant. Procedures were similar to those described by Iwata etal. (1994), and, subsequently, will not be detailed here. The functionalassessment included four conditions: demand, attention, tangible, andcontrol. The demands used for each participant were one-step commands orreceptive receptive/re��cep��tive/ (re-cep��tiv) capable of receiving or of responding to a stimulus. labels. The attention used involved a brief (i.e., 3-5 s)reprimand REPRIMAND, punishment. The censure which in some cases a public office pronounces against an offender. 2. This species of punishment is used by legislative bodies to punish their members or others who have been guilty of some impropriety of conduct towards them. . The tangibles used were preferred toys/items. Conditions wereconducted in semi-random order, with no single condition occurring twicein succession. Each session lasted 10 min. Sessions were conducted untilresponding was judged to be stable through visual inspection. Preference Assessment. Preference assessments to identify preferredstimuli were conducted based on the procedure of Fisher et al. (1992).Most procedures were identical, so only the minor differences betweenthe present experiment and the procedures of Fisher et al. (1992) willbe detailed here. The preference assessment was conducted across one(Nicholas) or two (Lyle) days. The preference assessment did not need toextend beyond one day for Nicholas as he had a restricted diet and,thus, his preferences reportedly remained stable over time and,regardless, edible options were very limited. Parents were asked togenerate a list of five edible items preferred by the participant. Dueto his diet, however, only three items were selected for Nicholas. Thereason edible items were used became relevant during the NCR phase; fooditems were quickly consumed con��sume?v. con��sumed, con��sum��ing, con��sumesv.tr.1. To take in as food; eat or drink up. See Synonyms at eat.2. a. and thus the participant was"ready" for another delivery soon. Toy items were demonstratedduring the tangible condition of the functional assessment to be moredifficult to remove from the participants. Items were presented in pairssuch that each item was presented once with every other item. Thisassessment allowed the items to be rank-ordered in terms of preference.The most highly preferred item was used as the alternative stimulus foreach child in subsequent phases. Testing the Alternative. Stimulus. rior to evaluating the effectsof delivering the alternative stimulus response independently (NCR withalternative stimulus), an assessment similar to that conducted byFischer et al. (1997) was conducted to determine whether the stimuliactually were arbitrary (i.e., did not maintain problem behavior). An ABdesign was used, in which A was baseline and B was testing. In baseline,no programmed consequences followed problem behavior. In the testing condition, the alternative stimulus, derived fromthe stimulus preference assessment, was delivered immediately followingthe occurrence of a targeted problem behavior. The individual deliveringthe alternative stimuli on the FT schedule remained out of sightthroughout the assessment to control for the confound con��found?tr.v. con��found��ed, con��found��ing, con��founds1. To cause to become confused or perplexed. See Synonyms at puzzle.2. of concurrentattention delivery. For Lyle, the therapist delivered a small cup ofcola through the window and placed it on the window ledge window ledgen → alf��izar m; repisawindow ledgen → rebord m de la fen��trewindow ledgewindow n . Because thetherapist was on the ground and reaching up through a crack in thewindow, the inadvertent delivery of simultaneous attention was avoided.For Nicholas, the therapist held a spoon spoon,n an instrument with a round or ovoid working end; designed to be used for scraping or scooping. through the slightly open doorto the session room, while remaining behind the door and thus out ofNicholas' line of vision. (Nicholas had been placed in front of thedoor at the start of the session because he was nonambulatory.) In bothcases, a therapist remained in the room with the participants, however,that therapist was to control for experimenter presence later and wastrained not to interact with, make eye contact with, or give anyattention to, the participant. Data were collected on the frequency of problem behavior in testingcompared to frequency of problem behavior in baseline to determine ifthe alternative stimulus functioned as a reinforcer (i.e., if rates ofproblem behavior increased with the contingent food delivery). Stimulithat did not increase problem behavior (relative to baseline) were usedas alternative stimuli. Functional Communication Training. The participants were taught tohand the therapist a picture card with a depiction of two individualsplaying and the word "play." This exchange was followed byattention delivery. This attention delivery was intended to be assimilar as possible to the attention delivery for inappropriatebehavior. Specifically, the therapist was trained to keep the tonerelatively neutral and the durations equal (i.e., 3-5 s). However, thewords necessarily differed; previously and in upcoming sessions,attention for problem behavior consisted of verbal reprimands (e.g.,"Don't do that," or "You're hurting me.").However, attention delivered for manding was more laudatory laud��a��to��ry?adj.Expressing or conferring praise: a laudatory review of the new play.laudatoryAdjective(of speech or writing) expressing praiseAdj. (e.g.,"Nice asking for play," or "You're doing a good jobtoday") or neutral (e.g., "What a nice day"). For eachparticipant, training involved systematically fading fadingfading skin coloring. See Arabian fading syndrome (below). Declining in body condition, general health, activity and productivity.Arabian fading syndromegeneral health is unimpaired. physical guidanceof picture exchange icons. This training involved two therapists--onewho initiated the trial, and the other who physically guided the pictureexchange. Physical guidance was faded from full physical prompts, topartial physical prompts, to gestural prompts, to no prompts based on90% accuracy of each step across three sessions. Problem behavior wasignored during this phase. Evaluation of NCR with Alternative Stimuli and MaintainingReinforcers. NCR and reinforcement of mands without extinction. Aftercompletion of FCT, evaluation of NCR commenced. Analternating-treatments design was used to compare response-independentdelivery of the maintaining reinforcer (i.e., attention; hereafter In the future.The term hereafter is always used to indicate a future time—to the exclusion of both the past and present—in legal documents, statutes, and other similar papers. , theattention component) with response-independent delivery of thealternative stimulus (cola for Lyle, oatmeal for Nicholas). Differenttherapists implemented each component with Lyle. For Nicholas, the sametherapist implemented the different components, but wore a long blue labcoat only in the attention component. In baseline, brief (i.e., 3-5 s) instances of attention (i.e.,reprimand) were delivered following each occurrence of problem behavior.After responding stabilized sta��bi��lize?v. sta��bi��lized, sta��bi��liz��ing, sta��bi��liz��esv.tr.1. To make stable or steadfast.2. in baseline, the comparison of FT deliveryof the alternative stimulus and the maintaining reinforcer wasinitiated. Throughout this phase, attention delivery followed allinstances of both problem behavior and the target mand (i.e., an FR1schedule), as well as occurring response independently, according to theschedule of delivery. The initial FT schedule for stimulus delivery(either the alternative stimulus or the maintaining reinforcer) wasyoked to the mean rate of problem behavior in baseline (that is, basedon the mean interresponse times during baseline in a procedure similarto that described by Kahng, Iwata, DeLeon, and Wallace, 2000). The rateof stimulus delivery was decreased based on continued suppression ofproblem behavior. Suppression for Lyle was defined as an 80% reductionin problem behavior relative to baseline for at least two consecutivesessions; for Nicholas a 75% decrease relative to baseline for at leasttwo consecutive sessions. For Lyle, rates of stimulus delivery weredecreased by adding fixed increments of 10 s; for Nicholas, rates ofstimulus delivery were decreased by adding fixed increments of 5 s. Ifproblem behavior increased above the predetermined pre��de��ter��mine?v. pre��de��ter��mined, pre��de��ter��min��ing, pre��de��ter��minesv.tr.1. To determine, decide, or establish in advance: criterion (i.e., 80%of baseline for Lyle, 75% for Nicholas) for at least two consecutivesessions, then the NCR-schedule value returned to its previous value.For example, problem behavior occurred an average of 38.16 responses permin in baseline for Lyle. His schedule was thinned when problem behaviorremained below 7.63 responses per min for at least two consecutivesessions. For both participants, successful intervention was defined assuppression of problem behavior below 80% of baseline (75% for Nicholas)with an FT 1-min schedule of stimulus delivery. NCR and reinforcement of mands with extinction. Because the NCRschedule was not thinned to 1 min for Lyle, extinction was implemented.In extinction, NCR continued as described above. The FT schedule beganat the last interval at which response suppression was maintained at 80%below baseline. Specifically, Lyle's rate of problem behaviorremained below 20% of that observed in baseline when NCR was an FT 20-sschedule; responding increased above that criteria, however, when therate of delivery was decreased to an FT 30-s schedule. Thus, extinctioninitially was implemented for the attention component on an FT 20-sschedule. Decreasing the rate of stimulus delivery continued as justdescribed and manding was reinforced on an FR1 schedule. Results Lyle Functional Analysis (1); Results of the analog functional analysisconducted with Lyle are depicted de��pict?tr.v. de��pict��ed, de��pict��ing, de��picts1. To represent in a picture or sculpture.2. To represent in words; describe. See Synonyms at represent. in the top graph of Figure 1. Problembehavior occurred almost exclusively during the attention component(M=48.1), suggesting that problem behavior was maintained by attention. Preference Assessment. Lyle was presented with cola, yogurt yogurt:see fermented milk. yogurtSemisolid, fermented, often flavoured milk food. Yogurt is known and consumed in almost all parts of the world. ,cheese, fried 1. (hardware) fried - Non-working due to hardware failure; burnt out. Especially used of hardware brought down by a "power glitch" (see glitch), drop-outs, a short, or some other electrical event. potato rounds, and chips. In the preference assessment,Lyle exclusively chose cola when it was offered. Testing the Alternative Stimulus. Results of alternative stimulustesting for Lyle are depicted in the top graph of Figure 2. Rates ofproblem behavior during baseline (extinction of problem behavior) rangedfrom 0 to 1.3 responses per min (M=0.34). Rates of problem behavior whencola was delivered response dependently ranged from 0 to 0.6 responsesper min (M=0.30). Although rates of problem behavior were somewhatvariable, response-dependent delivery of cola did not increaseresponding systematically relative to baseline. Cola was used as thealternative stimulus throughout the remainder of the study. Functional Communication Training. Functional communicationtraining was completed insofar that independent manding was observed insix sessions for Lyle. Evaluation of NCR with Alternative and Maintaining Reinforcers.Results obtained with Lyle are depicted in Figure 3. Problem behavior isdepicted in the top graph and manding in the bottom graph. The scheduleof stimulus delivery used during each session is listed in Appendix 2.Two different therapists conducted baseline and treatment sessions withLyle in an alternating-treatments design. Lyle emitted high rates ofproblem behavior in baseline (M=40.18 for one therapist; M=36.14 for thesecond therapist). Due to Lyle's high rates of problem behavior inbaseline, Lyle's initial NCR schedule for both attention and colabegan on a continuous schedule of reinforcement (CRF CRFabbr.chronic renal failureCRFChronic renal failure ). Once NCR was initiated, rates of problem behavior in sessions wherecola was delivered on the FT schedule remained below the criterion forschedule thinning (80% reduction relative to baseline, indicated by thehorizontal line (Descriptive Geometry & Drawing) a constructive line, either drawn or imagined, which passes through the point of sight, and is the chief line in the projection upon which all verticals are fixed, and upon which all vanishing points are found.See also: Horizontal ) for the first 5 sessions. By then, Lyle's NCRschedule in the alternative stimulus (cola) component was thinned to anFT 20-s schedule (see Appendix 3). From that point onward on��ward?adj.Moving or tending forward.adv. also on��wardsIn a direction or toward a position that is ahead in space or time; forward. , responding inthis component was somewhat variable although rates were lower overallthan those observed in the attention component. On three separateoccasions in the attention component, rates of responding met criteriafor schedule thinning; however, responding increased above criterion inthe next session. After three failed attempts to thin the schedule,extinction was implemented in the attention component. The schedule inthe cola component, however, was successfully thinned to an FT 1-minschedule in this initial condition (i.e., until extinction wasimplemented in the attention component). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] Manding occurred at relatively stable rates in both components ofthe first treatment phase (NCR without extinction). Manding was higherin the cola (M=1.41) than in the attention (M=0.64) component. Oneinterpretation of this finding is that, in the cola component, attentionwas delivered only following manding whereas in the attention component,attention delivery occurred frequently whether manding occurred or not. After implementation of extinction in the attention component,rates of problem behavior quickly declined to well below the criterionfor schedule thinning (M=1.01). Rates of problem behavior increasedmarkedly, however, in the cola components (M=32.39), suggesting apossible positive behavioral behavioralpertaining to behavior.behavioral disorderssee vice.behavioral seizuresee psychomotor seizure. contrast effect (i.e., an increase inresponding relative to baseline when extinction was implemented in theother component; see Williams, 1983 for a review). In an unsuccessfulattempt to eliminate this contrast effect, sessions were conducted inblocks of three. Nevertheless, rates of problem behavior in the FT colacomponents remained high and extinction was implemented in thiscondition. When extinction was in effect in both conditions, rates ofproblem behavior remained low in the attention component (M=1.17) andwere suppressed rapidly in the cola component (M=0.59). (One session inthe attention component was at 5.4 responses per min, which may have ledto an inflated mean.) When extinction was implemented in the attention component, mandingincreased somewhat (M=1.55), although rates were variable (range=0.1 to4.9). Manding decreased, however, in the cola component (M=0.34). Thisdecrease may have occurred because, as Lyle was emitting e��mit?tr.v. e��mit��ted, e��mit��ting, e��mits1. To give or send out (matter or energy): isotopes that emit radioactive particles; a stove emitting heat.2. a. more problembehavior in this component, attention delivery frequently occurred(contingent on Adj. 1. contingent on - determined by conditions or circumstances that follow; "arms sales contingent on the approval of congress"contingent upon, dependant on, dependant upon, dependent on, dependent upon, depending on, contingent problem behavior) regardless of the occurrence ofmanding. Manding continued to occur at relatively high rates when problembehavior was placed on extinction in both components. Prior to the lastfour sessions in each component, rates of manding occurred at similarrates in both components. Toward the end of the experiment, rates ofmanding decreased substantially in the cola component. Nicholas Functional Analysis. Results of the analog functional analysisconducted with Nicholas are depicted in the bottom graph of Figure 1.Highest rates of problem behavior occurred in the attention component,suggesting that his problem behavior was sensitive to attention. Ratesalso were elevated in the tangible condition, however, since a differenttangible was used in this phase than in the alternative stimuluscomponent, the interpretation of the results (i.e., maintaining vs.alternative stimulus) are not confounded. Preference Assessment. Due to ongoing difficulties with feeding andswallowing as well as medical concerns, Nicholas's motheridentified only three soft foods for the preference assessment: oatmeal,pudding pudding.Early writers on cookery class puddings and dumplings together. The earliest puddings were boiled in a bag or cloth. Later they were placed in a buttered bowl, covered with a cloth, and steamed. The baked or chilled puddings evolved even later. , and applesauce. In the preference assessment, Nicholasexclusively chose oatmeal when it was offered. Thus, oatmeal was testedin the next phase. Testing the Alternative Stimulus. Results of alternative stimulustesting for Nicholas are depicted in the bottom graph of Figure 2. Ratesof problem behavior in baseline (i.e., extinction of problem behavior)ranged from 0.6 to 7.2 responses per min (M=4.45). In baseline of thiscondition, head banging occurred, a response not observed in thefunctional assessment, although he reportedly often engaged in headbanging at home. Nicholas's parents requested that head banging beblocked physically, and this attention may have reinforced problembehavior. Rates of problem behavior decreased when oatmeal was deliveredresponse dependently (M=1.1). Results thus suggest that Nicholas'sproblem behavior was not maintained by oatmeal, which then was used asthe alternative stimulus in the remainder of the study. Functional Communication Training. Functional communicationtraining was completed insofar that independent manding was observed inthree sessions for Nicholas. NCR and Reinforcement of Mands without Extinction. Results obtainedwith Nicholas are depicted in Figure 4. Problem behavior is depicted inthe top graph and manding in the bottom graph. The schedule of stimulusdelivery used during each session is listed in Appendix 3. Duringbaseline, the mean rate of problem behavior was 6.27 responses per min.Rates of problem behavior did not differ significantly across components(M=5.80 in the presence of the coat [future attention component]; M=6.74in its absence [future alternative stimulus component]). Nicholas'sinitial NCR schedule for both attention and oatmeal began on an FT-7 sschedule. During initial sessions of NCR without extinction, rates of problembehavior remained low in each component, although rates consistentlywere lower in the oatmeal component. In fact, the criterion for schedulethinning (indicated by the horizontal line) was met in each of the first11 sessions of the oatmeal component. After the 11th session in theoatmeal component, the NCR schedule had been thinned to an FT 32-sschedule. For purposes of comparison, during the first 11 sessions of FTdelivery of attention, problem behavior occurred an average of 1.73times per min. After 22 sessions had been completed (11 per component),sessions were discontinued dis��con��tin��ue?v. dis��con��tin��ued, dis��con��tin��u��ing, dis��con��tin��uesv.tr.1. To stop doing or providing (something); end or abandon: for approximately two weeks due to a familyemergency. When sessions resumed, rates of problem behavior in bothcomponents were higher and more variable relative to previous sessions.Following six more oatmeal sessions (M=1.60) and two more attentioncomponents (M=1.05), continuing family difficulties resulted in anothertwo-week break, indicated by the second break in the axis. Afterresumption RESUMPTION. To reassume; to promise again; as, the resumption of payment of specie by the banks is general. It also signifies to take things back; as the government has resumed the possession of all the lands which have not been paid for according to the requisitions of the law, and the of sessions, responding increased in both components and itwas not possible to thin the schedule of NCR to the terminal criterionof FT 1-min schedule. At this point, a meeting was held withNicholas' parents to discuss options. His parents indicated thatthey would be unable to ignore Nicholas' self-injury at home, andthus Nicholas was withdrawn from the study. Manding was highly variablethroughout the experiment, but overall occurred more frequently in theoatmeal component (M=0.85) than in the attention component (M=0.38).This result is comparable to that obtained with Lyle. Discussion Effects of NCR and FCT on Problem Behavior Rates of problem behavior decreased almost immediately with bothparticipants following FCT, with differential reinforcement of mandingand the FT delivery of a preferred stimulus, the schedule of which wasdetermined by baseline reinforcement rates (see also Kahng et al.,2000). Slightly lower rates of problem behavior, however, were observedin the alternative-stimulus component relative to the attentioncomponent, a finding that occurred with each participant (with Lyle,prior to the implementation of extinction in the attention component;with Nicholas, prior to the disruption of the continuity of sessions).Although previous studies (e.g., Fischer et al., 1997) have found thatthe implementation of NCR with an alternative stimulus resulted innear-equal suppression of problem behavior relative to a condition inwhich the delivery of the maintaining reinforcer was responseindependent, no previous studies have demonstrated relatively greatersuppression under NCR with an alternative stimulus. There are at leastthree reasons why equal or greater response suppression would occur whenFCT is combined with NCR using an alternative stimulus as opposed to NCRusing the maintaining reinforcer. First, time spent consuming the alternative stimulus (i.e.,drinking cola, eating oatmeal) was not subtracted from total sessiontime (Fischer et al., 1997). The rationale for not subtracting this timewas that consumption and target responding (i.e., problem behavior) werenot mutually exclusive Adj. 1. mutually exclusive - unable to be both true at the same timecontradictoryincompatible - not compatible; "incompatible personalities"; "incompatible colors" . In addition, in the natural environment it isdesirable simply that responding decrease, even if the response-ratedecrement To subtract a number from another number. Decrementing a counter means to subtract 1 or some other number from its current value. is due to consumption time. If the alternative stimulus were atoy, for example, instead of food, it would be appropriate for theparticipant to interact with the toy instead of engaging in problembehavior. Anecdotally, however, problem behavior rarely occurred witheither of the present participants while they were eating or drinking. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] A second interpretation is that the type of attention deliveredresponse independently was not functionally similar to the attentionthat actually maintained problem behavior. That is, although theduration and tone of attention statements were similar, the wordsdiffered depending on whether they were delivered dependent on problembehavior (i.e., reprimands), dependent on mands (i.e., laudatorystatements) or delivered response independently (i.e., neutral orlaudatory statements). Two studies (Fisher, Ninness, Piazza, &Owen-DeSchryver, 1996; Piazza, Bowman, Contrucci, Delia, Adelinis, &Goh, 1999) have demonstrated that type of attention can differentiallyaffect problem behavior. In the current study, it is possible that"negative" attention, rather than attention generally,maintained problem behavior. If this were the case, theresponse-independent delivery of two different alternative stimuli, atangible stimulus and neutral or positive attention, actually wascompared, and each was combined with FCT resulting in access to themaintaining reinforcer. If neither noncontingent stimulus were amaintaining reinforcer and cola (or oatmeal) were more preferred thanpositive attention, greater suppression in the cola (or oatmeal)component simply may have been due to the presence of a more preferredalternative stimulus (Fisher, O'Conner, Kurtz, DeLeon, &Gotjen, 2000). A third reason the response-independent delivery of attention mayhave been less effective than the response-independent delivery of analternative stimulus when combined with FCT is accidental reinforcement(Skinner Skin��ner, B(urrhus) F(rederick) 1904-1990.American psychologist. A leading behaviorist, Skinner influenced the fields of psychology and education with his theories of stimulus-response behavior. , 1948) resulting from the FT delivery. It has been suggestedelsewhere (Vollmer, Ringdahl, Roane, & Marcus, 1997) that theaccidental reinforcement of problem behavior may be a limitation of NCR.In addition, Vollmer et al. (1993) found that accidental reinforcementwas more likely when problem behavior occurred at high rates inbaseline. In such cases, accidental reinforcement may be due to the highlikelihood of contiguity contiguity/con��ti��gu��i��ty/ (kon?ti-gu��i-te) contact or close proximity. con��ti��gu��i��tyn.The state of being contiguous. between the target response and the stimulusdelivery, as contiguity is one of the most influential variablescontrolling the effects of reinforcement (Lattal, 1995). If"positive" attention did reinforce problem behavior in thisstudy (which is undetermined, as positive attention was never deliveredresponse dependently), it is possible that the accidental reinforcementof the problem behavior occurred, as initial schedules of reinforcementwere so dense. Effects of NCR and FCT on Manding A second finding in the current study was that attention-maintainedmanding occurred more often in the alternative stimulus componentrelative to the attention component for both participants (for Lyle, atleast, prior to the implementation of extinction). Related to thisfinding, Lyle manded more frequently when the schedule of attentiondelivery was thinned in both components. These results only partlysupport the findings of Goh et al. (2000) showing that manding occurredreliably only when the maintaining reinforcer was delivered on a lean FTschedule. The current findings are somewhat inconsistent only becauseLyle and Nicholas reliably manded when the schedule of stimulus deliverywas dense. When extinction was implemented in the attention componentfor Lyle, manding again increased. Returning to the possible confound ofattention type, if negative attention were a more potent reinforcer thanpositive or neutral attention, problem behavior should occur morefrequently than manding, as it resulted in negative attention. Afterimplementation of extinction, the only type of attention available wasneutral or positive attention. Manding may have increased because,although positive attention was less preferred than negative attention,it still functioned as a reinforcer for manding. Effects of Extinction within NCR and FCT Preliminarily, the present results suggest that extinction isnecessary for sufficient response-rate decrements, which, as has beenmentioned above, has been suggested when either NCR or FCT areimplemented alone. One should use caution in interpreting these results,however, as extinction was implemented with only one participant (Lyle).Lyle's results support previous research because responsesuppression to criterion was not maintained in the attention componentwhen the schedule of stimulus delivery decreased without extinction. Practical Implications The study and use of FCT and NCR with an alternative stimulusbenefits practitioners as well as researchers. Practitioners do notalways have the time, resources, or technology to determine the functionof problem behavior. In a classroom, for example, the problem behaviorof five different children may have multiple functions--the developmentof a practical intervention that might reduce problem behavior withoutaddressing the individual function of each behavior would be essentialfor the teacher. The practitioner can be confident in providing somealternative preferred stimulus on an FT schedule and only providing themaintaining reinforcer when it is requested. Using a combination of NCRand FCT in the natural environment would also be easier to implement inmany cases than, for example, adifferential-reinforcement-of-other-behavior (DRO DRO Digital ReadoutDRO Detention and Removal Operations (US Immigration and Customs Enforcement)DRO Domestic Relations OrderDRO Department of Radiation OncologyDRO Dielectric Resonator OscillatorDRO Destructive Read Out ) schedule. Employing aDRO schedule requires that the practitioner attend continuously to thechild. Employing NCR and FCT, however, the FT schedule can continueregardless of the child's behavior, and the child will drawattention to him- or herself by manding, thereby decreasing thevigilance VIGILANCE. Proper attention in proper time. 2. The law requires a man who has a claim to enforce it in proper time, while the adverse party has it in his power to defend himself; and if by his neglect to do so, he cannot afterwards establish such claim, the required on the part of the practitioner. Finally, while it might be easier for the practitioner to avoidusing extinction, this and other studies (Hagopian et al., 1998;Hagopian, Crockett, van Stone, DeLeon, & Bowman, 2000), havedetermined that extinction likely is necessary to include in packagesfor the treatment of problem behavior. Thus, the teacher, parent, andclinician clinician/cli��ni��cian/ (kli-nish��in) an expert clinical physician and teacher. cli��ni��ciann. need to be comfortable in the use of extinction in manyinterventions and combinations of interventions. For these and otherreasons, it is important to investigate further the procedures thatefficiently and effectively reduce problem behavior--which components inNCR/FCT procedures are necessary, and, thereby, which combination oftreatment components will be most effective. Limitations of Present Research and Future Research Directions The effects of the present study are limited by the design. Anattempt was made to create a multielement design; however, a failure toobserve consistent differences without overlap prevented clearfunctional control. Furthermore, the intervention was conducted withonly two participants, only one of whom received extinction as acomponent of the experiment. Finally, it is undetermined if analternative stimulus and a maintaining reinforcer were, in fact,compared, such that the functional assessment determined that"negative" attention served as a maintaining reinforcer, but,for practical reasons, only "positive" or "neutral"attention could be delivered in the absence of problem behavior. Thus,this study allows for only preliminary findings and a catalyst forfuture research. It is noteworthy to indicate that many existing published studieson FCT and especially NCR have been conducted by trained therapists in acontrolled environment over a limited number of sessions. Thus, futureresearch examining feasibility of both interventions (and thecombination thereof) in the natural environment and with extensivefollow-up data is necessary. Included in this goal would be toinvestigate the potential for less consistent schedules of reinforcementwith NCR and FCT. It is likely in the natural environment thatpractitioners will not be able to reinforce manding on an FR1 schedule;thus, intermittent intermittent/in��ter��mit��tent/ (-mit��ent) marked by alternating periods of activity and inactivity. in��ter��mit��tentadj.1. Stopping and starting at intervals.2. schedules (more likely in the natural environment)must be examined. In addition, the terminal schedule for FT delivery inthis study (i.e., FT 1 min) likely is not practical and attempts shouldbe made to deliver NCR on a leaner and/or more variable schedule.Finally, it would be practical to extend the effects of NCR using anarbitrary stimulus to tangibles other than food, specifically toys orpreferred activities. Despite the limitations, this study exhibited consistent resultsand has practical implications, as well as serving as an impetus Impetus is a stimulus or impulse, a moving force that sparks momentum.Impetus may also refer to: Theory of impetus, an obsolete scientific theory on projectile motion, superseded by the modern theory of inertia forfuture research. Furthermore, it supplements the growing body ofresearch suggesting that extinction may be a necessary addition to NCR.Therefore, although some families and teachers have indicated thatextinction often is difficult to implement, it may be necessary ifsignificant suppression is to be maintained when the reinforcementschedules are changed to a more realistic interval. Future investigationof the inclusion of FCT and NCR (both with a maintaining reinforcer andalternative stimulus) in the treatment of problem behavior inevitablywould benefit the practitioner and children being served. References Anderson, C. M., & Long, E. S. (2002). Use of a structureddescriptive assessment methodology to identify variables affectingproblem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) was established in 1968 as a The Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis is a peer-reviewed, psychology journal, that publishes research about applications of the experimental analysis of behavior to problems of social importance. , 35, 137-154. Carr, E. G., & Durand, V. M. (1985). Reducing behavior problemsthrough functional communication training. Journal of Applied BehaviorAnalysis, 18, 111-126. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (1987). Appliedbehavior analysis Some of the information in this article may not be verified by . It should be checked for inaccuracies and modified to cite reliable sources.Applied behavior analysis (ABA) . 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A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K. J., Bauman, K. E., &Richman, G. S. (1994). Toward a functional analysis of self-injury.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 197-209. (Reprinted fromAnalysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 2, 3-20, 1982). Kahng, S., Iwata, B. A., DeLeon, I. G., & Wallace, M. D.(2000). A comparison of procedures for programming noncontingentreinforcement schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33,223-231. Lalli, J. S., Casey, S. D., & Kates, K. (1997). Noncontingentreinforcement as treatment for severe problem behavior: Some proceduralvariations. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 127-137. Lattal, K. A. (1995). Contingency contingencyn. an event that might not occur. and behavior analysis. TheBehavior Analyst, 18, 209-224. Marcus, B. A., & Vollmer, T. R. (1996). Combining noncontingentreinforcement and differential reinforcement schedules as treatment foraberrant behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 43-51. Miltenberger, R. G. (1997). Behavior modification behavior modificationn.1. The use of basic learning techniques, such as conditioning, biofeedback, reinforcement, or aversion therapy, to teach simple skills or alter undesirable behavior.2. See behavior therapy. : Principles andprocedures. Pacific Grove Pacific Grove,residential and resort city (1990 pop. 16,117), Monterey co., W central Calif., on a point where Monterey Bay meets the Pacific Ocean; inc. 1889. , CA: Brooks/Cole. Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G., Contrucci, S. A., Delia, M. D.,Adelinis, J. D., & Goh, H. (1999). An evaluation of the propertiesof attention as reinforcement for destructive and appropriate behavior.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 437-449. Skinner, B. F. (1948). "Superstition superstition,an irrational belief or practice resulting from ignorance or fear of the unknown. The validity of superstitions is based on belief in the power of magic and witchcraft and in such invisible forces as spirits and demons. " in the pigeon pigeon,common name for members of the large family Columbidae, land birds, cosmopolitan in temperate and tropical regions, characterized by stout bodies, short necks, small heads, and thick, heavy plumage. .Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-272. Tucker, M., Sigafoos, J., & Bushell, H. (1998). Use ofnoncontingent reinforcement in the treatment of challenging behavior.Behavior Modification, 22, 529-547. Vollmer, T. R., Iwata, B. A., Zarcone, J. R., Smith, R. G., &Mazaleski, J. L. (1993). The role of attention in the treatment ofattention-maintained self-injurious behavior: Noncontingentreinforcement and differential reinforcement of other behavior. Journalof Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 9-21. Vollmer, T.R., Ringdahl, J.E., Roane, H.S., Marcus, B.A. (1997).Negative side effects Side effectsEffects of a proposed project on other parts of the firm. of noncontingent reinforcement. Journal of AppliedBehavior Analysis, 30, 161-164. Williams, B. A. (1983). Another look at contrast in multipleschedules. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior The experimental analysis of behavior is the name given to school of psychology founded by B. F. Skinner, and based on his philosophy of radical behaviorism. A central principle was the inductive, data-driven[1] , 39,345-384. Shannon S. Doughty and Cynthia M. Anderson West Virginia University West Virginia University,mainly at Morgantown; coeducational; land-grant and state supported; est. and opened 1867 as an agricultural college, renamed 1868. This research was conducted in partial fulfillment ful��fillalso ful��fil ?tr.v. ful��filled, ful��fill��ing, ful��fills also ful��fils1. To bring into actuality; effect: fulfilled their promises.2. of therequirements for the Master of Arts Master of ArtsNouna degree, usually postgraduate in a nonscientific subject, or a person holding this degreeNoun 1. Master of Arts - a master's degree in arts and sciencesArtium Magister, MA, AM degree by the first author, andportions of the study were presented at the Annual Convention of theAssociation for Behavior Analysis The Association for Behavior Analysis is an organization dedicated to promoting the experimental, theoretical, and applied analysis of behavior. It encompasses contemporary scientific and social issues, theoretical advances, and the dissemination of professional and public in San Francisco San Francisco(săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden (2003). We thankHeather Barclay, Carie English, Lindsay Hauer, Raina Hosey ho��sey?intr.v. ho��seyed, ho��sey��ing, ho��seys New EnglandTo choose sides for a children's game.[Perhaps from French (je) choisis, (I) choose, first person sing. , MeghanMoore, Cooper Mackey, and Lisa Ware for their assistance in datacollection, and Adam Doughty, Andy Lattal, and Tracy Morris for commentson an earlier version of this manuscript manuscript,a handwritten work as distinguished from printing. The oldest manuscripts, those found in Egyptian tombs, were written on papyrus; the earliest dates from c.3500 B.C. . Shannon Doughty is now at the Parsons State Hospital and TrainingCenter. Correspondence should be addressed to her at 2601 Gabriel, P.O.Box 738, Parsons, KS, 67357 (e-mail: PSHSSH@srskansas.org).Appendix 1 Description of Phases and Responses during Intervention ParticipantParticipant Phase Condition/Component response Both Testing the Baseline Problem behavior Alternative Stimulus Both Testing the Testing Problem behavior Alternative Stimulus Both FCT N/A Mand Both FCT N/A Problem behavior Lyle Baseline Therapist A Problem behavior (maintaining SR) Lyle Baseline Therapist B Problem behavior (alternative stim.)Nicholas Baseline Coat (maintaining SR) Problem behaviorNicholas Baseline No coat (alternative Problem behavior stimulus) Lyle NCR w/o EXT, Therapist A Problem behavior w/reinforcement (maintaining SR) of mands Lyle NCR w/o EXT, Therapist A Mand w/reinforcement (maintaining SR) of mands Lyle NCR w/o EXT, Therapist B Problem behavior w/reinforcement (alternative stim.) of mands Lyle NCR w/o EXT, Therapist B Mand w/reinforcement (alternative stim.) of mandsNicholas NCR w/o EXT, Coat (maintaining SR) Problem behavior w/reinforcement of mandsNicholas NCR w/o EXT, Coat (maintaining SR) Mand w/reinforcement of mandsNicholas NCR w/o EXT, No coat (alternative Problem behavior w/reinforcement stimulus) of mandsNicholas NCR w/o EXT, No coat (alternative Mand w/reinforcement stimulus) of mands Lyle NCR w/o EXT Therapist A Problem behavior (alt.stim), (maintaining SR) w/EXT (maint. SR), w/ reinforcement of mands Lyle NCR w/o EXT Therapist A Mand (alt.stim), (maintaining SR) w/EXT (maint. SR), w/ reinforcement of mands Lyle NCR w/o EXT Therapist B Problem behavior (alt.stim), (alternative stim.) w/EXT (maint. SR), w/ reinforcement of mands Lyle NCR w/o EXT (alt. Therapist B Mand stim), w/EXT (alternative stim.) (maint. SR), w/ reinforcement of mands Lyle NCR w/o EXT, Therapist A Problem behavior w/reinforcement (maintaining SR) of mands Lyle NCR w/o EXT, Therapist A Mand w/reinforcement (maintaining SR) of mands Lyle NCR w/o EXT, Therapist B Problem behavior w/reinforcement (alternative stim.) of mands Lyle NCR w/o EXT, Therapist B Mand w/reinforcement (alternative stim.) of mandsParticipant Consequence Noncontingent stimulus Both None None Both Food None Both "+"/Neutral Att* None Both None None Lyle None None Lyle None NoneNicholas None NoneNicholas None None Lyle "-" Attention* "+"/Neutral Attention* Lyle "+"/Neutral Att* "+"/Neutral Attention* Lyle "-" Attention* Cola Lyle "+"/Neutral Att* ColaNicholas "-" Attention* "+"/Neutral Attention*Nicholas "+"/Neutral Att* "+"/Neutral Attention*Nicholas "-" Attention* OatmealNicholas "+"/Neutral Att* Oatmeal Lyle None "+"/Neutral Attention* Lyle "+"/Neutral Att* "+"/Neutral Attention* Lyle "-" Attention* Cola Lyle "+"/Neutral Att* Cola Lyle None "+"/Neutral Attention* Lyle "+"/Neutral Att* "+"/Neutral Attention* Lyle None Cola Lyle "+"/Neutral Att* Cola* "+" attention includes more laudatory statements (e.g., "You're doingsuch a nice job today.") Neutral attention includes more neutralstatements (e.g., "It's such a nice day."). "-" attention includesreprimands (e.g., "Don't do that; you're hurting me.")Appendix 2 Schedule of Stimulus Delivery for LyleSession Attention Condition Cola Condition 11 FT10" 12 CRF 13 CRF 14 CRF 15 FT10" 16 CRF 17 FT20" 18 CRF 19 FT20" 20 CRF 21 FT20" 22 CRF 23 FT20" 24 FT10" 25 FT20" 26 FT10" 27 FT30" 28 FT10" 29 FT30" 30 FT10" 31 FT30" 32 CRF 33 FT40" 34 CRF 35 FT40" 36 CRF 37 FT40" 38 CRF 39 FT50" 40 FT10" 41 FT50" 42 FT10" 43 FT60" 44 FT10" 45 FT60" 46 FT20" 47 FT50" 48 FT20" 49 FT50" 50 FT30" 51 FT60" 52 FT30' 53 FT60' 54 FT20"EXT 55 FT60" 56 FT20"EXT 57 FT60" 58 FT30"EXT 59 FT50" 60 FT30"EXT 61 FT50" 62 FT40"EXT 63 FT40" 64 FT40"EXT 65 FT40" 66 FT50"EXT 67 FT30" 68 FT30" 69 FT20" 70 FT20" 71 FT10" 72 FT10" 73 FT50"EXT 74 FT60"EXT 75 FT60"EXT 76 FT10"EXT 77 FT10"EXT 78 FT20"EXT 79 FT60"EXT 80 FT60"EXT 81 FT60"EXT 82 FT20"EXT 83 FT30"EXT 84 FT30"EXT 85 FT60"EXT 86 FT60"EXT 87 FT60"EXT 88 FT40"EXT 89 FT40"EXT 90 FT50"EXT 91 FT60"EXT 92 FT60"EXT 93 FT60"EXT 94 FT50"EXT 95 FT60"EXT 96 FT60"EXT 97 FT60"EXT 98 FT60"EXT 99 FT60"EXT 100 FT60"EXT 101 FT60"EXT 102 FT60"EXT 103 FT60"EXT 104 FT60"EXT 105 FT60"EXT 106 FT60"EXT 107 FT60"EXT 108 FT60"EXTAppendix 3 Schedule of Stimulus Delivery for NicholasSession Attention Condition Oatmeal Condition11 FT7""12 FT7"13 FT7"14 FT7"15 FT7"16 FT7"17 FT12"18 FT7"19 FT7"20 FT17"21 FT17"22 FT7"23 FT22"24 FT22"25 FT27"26 FT7"27 FT27"28 FT12"29 FT32"30 FT12"31 FT12"32 FT12"33 FT32"34 FT32"35 FT7"36 FT32"37 FT37"38 FT7"39 FT37"40 FT42"41 FT42"42 FT12"43 FT12"44 FT42"45 FT37"46 FT7"47 FT37"48 FT37"49 FT37"50 FT7"51 FT7"52 FT7"53 FT37"54 FT32"55 FT32"