Eneolithic horse exploitation in the Eurasian steppes: diet, ritual and riding.

Eneolithic horse exploitation in the Eurasian steppes: diet, ritual and riding. The symbolism of the horse in Eneolithic society is explored inthis paper. Recent excavations in the Eurasian steppes demonstrate theimportance of horses before domestication domesticationProcess of hereditary reorganization of wild animals and plants into forms more accommodating to the interests of people. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of wild animals and plants. and horse riding becamecommon; showing they were eaten, exploited and revered. Key-words: Eurasia, Eneolithic, steppe steppe(stĕp), temperate grassland of Eurasia, consisting of level, generally treeless plains. It extends over the lower regions of the Danube and in a broad belt over S and SE European and Central Asian Russia, stretching E to the Altai and S to , horse, bit, [sup.14]Cdating, Dereivka In 1964 the remains of a horse and two dogs were discovered at theedge of an Eneolithic settlement excavated by D. Telegin near Dereivka,Ukraine (Telegin 1973; 1986). The horse, a 7-8-year-old stallion, wasrepresented by its skull, mandible mandible/man��di��ble/ (man��di-b'l) the horseshoe-shaped bone forming the lower jaw, articulating with the skull at the temporomandibular joint.mandib��ular man��di��blen. and left foreleg. Similar`head-and-hoof' deposits of later periods were created when a horsehide was buried with the head and hooves attached, often after a ritualhorse feast (Piggott 1962; Bokonyi 1980; Mallory 1981; Jones &Pennick 1995: 139-40). The bones of the two dogs also seemed to be frompelts with the head attached. In 1990 the authors detected wear made bya bit on the lower second premolars ([P.sub.2]) of the horse. Theassociation of the horse with domestic dogs and the apparent ritualcharacter of the deposit supported the bit-wear evidence: this horse waspart of the world of humans, Hodder's domus, rather than a creatureof the wild. Its stratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat location at the bottom of the Eneolithicsettlement deposit, one metre beneath the modern ground surface, madeits antiquity seem secure. The absolute age assigned to EneolithicDereivka is based on 10 radiocarbon dates (TABLE 1: 1-10), eight ofwhich average between 4300-3900 BC.(1) The Dereivka stallion with bitwear was announced as the earliest direct evidence for the use of thehorse as a transport animal (Anthony & Brown 1991; Anthony et al.1991). TABLE 1. Radiocarbon dates from the Eneolithic and Bronze Age Bronze Age,period in the development of technology when metals were first used regularly in the manufacture of tools and weapons. Pure copper and bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, were used indiscriminately at first; this early period is sometimes called the ofthe Eurasian steppes.lab date BP contextDereivka, Late Eneolithic, Sredni Stog culture1 Ki-2195 6240 [+ or -] 100 settlement, shell2 UCLA-1466a 5515 [+ or -] 90 settlement, bone3 Ki-2193 5400 [+ or -] 100 settlement, shell4 OxA-5030 5380 [+ or -] 90 cemetery, grave 25 KI-6966 5370 [+ or -] 70 settlement, bone6 Ki-6960 5330 [+ or -] 60 settlement, bone7 KI-6964 5260 [+ or -] 75 settlement, bone8 Ki-2197 5230 [+ or -] 95 settlement, bone9 Ki-6965 5210 [+ or -] 70 settlement, bone10 UCLA-1671a 4900 [+ or -] 100 settlement, bone11 Ki 5488 4330 [+ or -] 120 cult horse skull12 Ki-6962 2490 [+ or -] 95 cult horse skull13 OxA-7185 2295 [+ or -] 60 cult horse tooth14 OxA-6577 1995 [+ or -] 60 bone near cult horseOsipovka, Early Eneolithic, Dnieper-Donets (Mariupol) culture15 Ki-517 6075 [+ or -] 125 cemetery, bone16 Ki-519 5940 [+ or -] 420 cemetery, boneNikol'skoe, Early Eneolithic, Dnieper-Donets (Mariupol) culture17 Ki-523 5640 [+ or -] 400 cemetery, boneYasinovatka, Early Eneolithic, Dnieper-Donets (Mariupol) culture18 Ki-1171 5650 [+ or -] 700 cemetery, boneRakushechni Yar, Late Neolithic, Lower Don group19 Bln-704 6070 [+ or -] 100 level 8, charcoal20 Ki-955 5790 [+ or -] 100 level 5, shellKhvalynsk cemetery, Early Eneolithic, Khvalynsk culture21 AA12571 6200 [+ or -] 85 cemetery II, grave 3022 AA-12572 5985 [+ or -] 85 cemetery II, grave 1823 OxA-4314 6015 [+ or -] 85 cemetery II, grave 1824 OxA-4313 5920 [+ or -] 80 cemetery II, grave 3425 OxA-4312 5830 [+ or -] 80 cemetery II, grave 2426 OxA-4311 5790 [+ or -] 80 cemetery II, grave 1027 UPI-119 5903 [+ or -] 72 cemetery I, grave 428 UPI-120 5808 [+ or -] 79 cemetery I, grave 2629 UPI-132 6085 [+ or -] 193 cemetery I, grave 13Varfolomievka settlement, Late Neolithic, North Caspian30 Lu-2642 6400 [+ or -] 230 level 2B, ?31 Lu-2620 6090 [+ or -] 160 level 2B, ?Kozhai 1 settlement, Eneolithic, Tersek culture, North Kazakhstan32 IGAN-656 4600 [+ or -] 320 ?33 IGAN-748 4570 [+ or -] 40 ?Kumkeshu settlement, Eneolithic, Tersek culture, North Kazakhstan34 IGAN-749 4570 [+ or -] 270 ?Botai settlement, Eneolithic, Botai culture, North Kazakhstan35 OxA-4315 4630 [+ or -] 75 lower level, bone36 OxA-4316 4620 [+ or -] 80 pit 5, bone37 OxA-4317 4630 [+ or -] 80 house 44, pit 10, bone38 IGAS-4234 4900 [+ or -] 80 house 50, bone39 IGAS-4235 4160 [+ or -] 40 house 48, ?40 IGAS-4236 4540 [+ or -] 60 house 55, ?41 IGAS-4237 4430 [+ or -] 60 pit 9, between h. 49/56Sergeivka, Terminal Botai/Early Bronze Age, North Kazakhstan42 OxA-4439 4160 [+ or -] 80 settlement, boneUtyevka VI, kurgan 6, grave 4, Middle Bronze Age, Potapovka group43 OxA-4306 3510 [+ or -] 80 K6(4), bone44 AA-12568 3760 [+ or -] 100 K6(4), bone calibrated date BClab (OxCal)Dereivka, Late Eneolithic, Sredni Stog culture1 Ki-2195 5270-5058(*)2 UCLA-1466a 4470-42403 Ki-2193 4360-40404 OxA-5030 4350-40405 KI-6966 4340-40406 Ki-6960 4250-40407 KI-6964 4230-39908 Ki-2197 4230-39709 Ki-6965 4230-396010 UCLA-1671a 3900-353011 Ki 5488 3300-270012 Ki-6962 790-52013 OxA-7185 410-20014 OxA-6577 90 BC-AD 70Osipovka, Early Eneolithic, Dnieper-Donets (Mariupol) culture15 Ki-517 5210-490016 Ki-519 5280-4350(*)Nikol'skoe, Early Eneolithic, Dnieper-Donets (Mariupol) culture17 Ki-523 4950-4000Yasinovatka, Early Eneolithic, Dnieper-Donets (Mariupol) culture18 Ki-1171 5300-3900Rakushechni Yar, Late Neolithic, Lower Don group19 Bln-704 5210-490020 Ki-955 4790-4530Khvalynsk cemetery, Early Eneolithic, Khvalynsk culture21 AA12571 5250-5050(*)22 AA-12572 5040-478023 OxA-4314 5060-479024 OxA-4313 4940-472025 OxA-4312 4840-458026 OxA-4311 4780-457027 UPI-119 4900-472028 UPI-120 4790-458029 UPI-132 5242-4780(*)Varfolomievka settlement, Late Neolithic, North Caspian30 Lu-2642 5570-5070(*)31 Lu-2620 5220-4840(*)Kozhai 1 settlement, Eneolithic, Tersek culture, North Kazakhstan32 IGAN-656 3700-290033 IGAN-748 3380-3130Kumkeshu settlement, Eneolithic, Tersek culture, North Kazakhstan34 IGAN-749 3650-2900Botai settlement, Eneolithic, Botai culture, North Kazakhstan35 OxA-4315 3600-319036 OxA-4316 3600-314637 OxA-4317 3610-314038 IGAS-4234 3790-354039 IGAS-4235 2880-262040 IGAS-4236 3360-310041 IGAS-4237 3310-2920Sergeivka, Terminal Botai/Early Bronze Age, North Kazakhstan42 OxA-4439 2830-2610Utyevka VI, kurgan 6, grave 4, Middle Bronze Age, Potapovka group43 OxA-4306 1920-1740(*)44 AA-12568 2310-2030(*) * starred dates were calibrated using CALIB, not OxCal New radiocarbon dates from Oxford and Kiev indicate that theDereivka `cult stallion' should be withdrawn from discussions ofEneolithic horse-keeping. The Dereivka horse died between about 700 and200 BC. In Ukraine, this would suggest a Scythian-period Iron Agedeposit. Apparently the remains of the horse, and probably the dogs aswell, were placed in a pit dug into the Eneolithic site during the IronAge. The first direct date on a piece of bone from the bitted horse wasreported by Telegin in a conference paper in 1995 (TABLE 1: 11). It wasabout 500-1000 years younger than expected, compared with otherradiocarbon dates from the Dereivka settlement. This date remains apuzzling anomaly. A year later another bone fragment from the same leveland excavation unit as the bitted horse, but not from the bitted horseitself, produced an AMS AMS - Andrew Message System date about 4000 years younger than expected(TABLE 1: 14). In 1997 Telegin and Anthony forwarded one of the twobit-worn [P.sub.2]s to Oxford for AMS dating. The tooth was about3500-4000 years younger than expected (TABLE 1: 13). Telegin had by thenobtained a date on one more piece of bone from the stallion'sskull. It too was about 3500 years too young (TABLE 1: 12). Theradiocarbon results are too scattered firmly to support a specific date,but at this point the general age of the bitted horse was clear. The Dereivka bitted horse was important because it was discoveredat a well-dated site that has been central in discussions of horsedomestication since 1967 (Bibikova 1967; 1969; Nobis 1971; Bokonyi 1974:238; Levine 1990; Anthony & Brown 1991; Azzaroli 1998). Bit wearseemed to provide the `smoking gun' that was missing from earlierarguments about the origins of horseback riding horseback riding:see equestrianism. . But Dereivka is not theonly Eneolithic site that contains horse teeth with bit wear. Bit wearhas been discovered also at Botai, an Eneolithic site in Kazakhstandated about 3500-3000 BC, and new evidence continues to support thehypothesis that horses were domesticated do��mes��ti��cate?tr.v. do��mes��ti��cat��ed, do��mes��ti��cat��ing, do��mes��ti��cates1. To cause to feel comfortable at home; make domestic.2. To adopt or make fit for domestic use or life.3. a. and ridden by at least3500-3000 BC in the Eurasian steppes. Eneolithic horse exploitation in the western steppes Food-producing economies appeared in the western steppes, west ofthe Ural Mountains Ural MountainsMountain range, Russia and Kazakhstan. Generally held to constitute the boundary between Europe and Asia, the range extends north-south for some 1,550 mi (2,500 km) from just south of the Kara Sea to the Ural River; a southward spur extends into northwestern , 1000 years before Dereivka. The bones ofdomesticated cattle and sheep/goats have been found in a series of LateNeolithic and Early Eneolithic sites dated between about 5200 and 4500BC (FIGURE 1, TABLE 1: 15-31). Apart from Telegin's work on theDnieper, most of these sites are little known in the Westernarchaeological literature (but see Mallory 1989: 195-210 and Shnirelman1992). Nevertheless, they represent the beginnings of widespread cattleand sheep/goat herding in the Eurasian steppes. Horses, whetherdomesticated or wild, were an important part of this subsistence system. [Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] The principal Late Neolithic/Early Eneolithic regional groups are(FIGURE 1, TABLE 1: 15-31): the Dnieper-Donets culture Dnieper-Donets culture, ca. 5th—4th millennium BC. A neolithic (stone age) culture in the area north of the Black Sea/Sea of Azov between the Dnieper and Donets River.It was a hunter-gatherer culture that made the transition to early agriculture. of Mariupol typein the steppe river valleys between the Dnieper and Donets rivers(Telegin 1968; 1987; 1991; Telegin & Potekhina 1987); the Orlovkagroup on the middle Don/lower Volga (Mamontov 1974; Yudin 1988; 1998);the Rakushechni Yar group on the lower Don (Belanovskaya & Telegin1996; Kiashko 1987; 1994); the Varfolomievka group in the Volga-Uralsteppes (Yudin 1988; 1998); and the Khvalynsk culture The Khvalynsk culture was an Eneolithic (copper age) culture of the first half of the 5th millennium BC, discovered at Khvalynsk on the Volga in Saratov Oblast, Russia. The culture also is termed the Middle Eneolithic or Developed Eneolithic or on the lower Volgawith its related cousins such as S'ezzhye in the Samara Samara, river, RussiaSamara(səmä`rə), river, c.360 mi (580 km) long, rising in the foothills of the S Urals, European Russia. It flows generally northwest, and joins the Volga River at Samara. region(Vasiliev 1981; Vasiliev & Matveeva 1979; Agapov et al. 1990). Seedimpressions of barley (Telegin 1968: 207), wheat (T. monococcum and T.dicoccum) and millet millet,common name for several species of grasses cultivated mainly for cereals in the Eastern Hemisphere and for forage and hay in North America. The principal varieties are the foxtail, pearl, and barnyard millets and the proso millet, called also broomcorn millet (Panicum sativum) have been found in ceramic potsat some Dnieper-Donets settlements (Yanushevich 1989), but studies ofdental caries in some Dnieper-Donets cemeteries suggest that the peopleexamined ate a low-carbohydrate diet Low-carbohydrate diets or low-carb diets are nutritional programs that advocate restricted carbohydrate consumption, based on research that ties consumption of certain carbohydrates with increased blood insulin levels, and overexposure to insulin with metabolic syndrome (the (Lillie 1996), so the contributionof cultivated cereals to the Early Eneolithic diet remains unclear. Horse, sheep/goat and cattle are present in Early Eneolithic/LateNeolithic contexts in all of the cited groups. Horse bones occurregularly, in high percentages. At Ivanovskaya on the upper SamaraRiver, a Neolithic settlement, horse, sheep/goat and dog were identifiedas domesticates, with horse bones constituting 45 [multiplied by] 5% ofthe 1382 bones identified (Morgunova 1988). At Late NeolithicVarfolomievka in the steppes between the Volga and Ural Rivers, thecertain domesticates were identified as sheep/ goal and dog, but `almosthalf' the bones were of horses, some of which were said to fit inthe domestic category, and some wild (Yudin 1988: 164). TheKhvalynsk-culture Eneolithic settlement of Vilovatoe on the Samara Riveryielded 552 identifiable bones, of which 28.3% were horse, 19.4% weresheep/goat and 6.3% were cattle, in addition to beaver (31.8%) and reddeer Red Deer, city, CanadaRed Deer,city (1991 pop. 58,134), S central Alta., Canada, on the Red Deer River. It developed as a trade and service center for a region of dairying and mixed farming. (12.9%)(Petrenko 1984: 149). The Early Eneolithic Dnieper-Donets(or Mariupol) culture has four settlements with reported fauna (Telegin1968; English summaries in Mallory 1987 and Anthony 1991). Cattle(average 25.7% of bones), sheep/goat (average 20.2%) and horses (average12.1%) were the dominant food animals. Horses were a significant element in the subsistence economy of thewestern steppes long before the Sredni Stog period. Neolithic/EarlyEneolithic sites in the Volga-Caspian steppes, the eastern part of thisregion, contained up to 50% horse bones, accompanied by a small butpersistent percentage of sheep/goat and occasional cattle. In theDnieper-Azov steppes (Mariupol type), in the west, there were fewerhorse bones and more cattle, but even here horses supplied, on average,more than 20% of the meat diet (Anthony 1991: table 1). The domestication of any animal must be seen as a process, not anevent. A long history of human dietary dependence on horses can bedocumented in the western steppes beginning before 5000 BC, in acultural context that included cattle and caprine cap��rinen.See norleucine.caprinepertaining to or emanating from goats.caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE) herding. Althoughhorses were present at the same time in small populations in western andcentral Europe (Benecke 1994: 64-75), they were not important there inhuman diets. The preconditions for domestication existed only in thesteppes. Eneolithic horse symbolism in the western steppes Horses played an equally important role in Eneolithic beliefsystems in the western steppes. The symbolic role of the horse isindicated most clearly at the Khvalynsk cemetery. Khvalynsk, locatedbetween Saratov and Samara on the middle Volga, is the type site for theEarly Eneolithic Khvalynsk culture. The cemetery contained more than 200human burials. The radiocarbon dates average between 5000-4500 BC (TABLE1: 21-29). The first excavations in 1977-79 (cemetery I) disclosed 158graves; these have been published (Agapov et al. 1990) (FIGURE 2). Thesecond excavation campaign in 1980-85 (cemetery II) documented 43additional graves, which are unpublished. The two adjacent excavationsprobably represent one cemetery. Men, women and children were buried inindividual graves and in superimposed grave clusters (family groups?).Some individuals were buried with round-bottomed pots, polished stonemaces, antler hammers, belts of shell beads and beaver incisors,boars' tusk breast ornaments, and ornamental beads, rings andbracelets made of copper (FIGURE 3). Trace elements Trace elementsA group of elements that are present in the human body in very small amounts but are nonetheless important to good health. They include chromium, copper, cobalt, iodine, iron, selenium, and zinc. Trace elements are also called micronutrients. in some of thecopper objects are characteristic of Balkan/Carpathian sources, and thesimple forging and welding methods resemble those of the Carpathianearly Triploye culture, though the objects are cruder and probably weremade locally (Ryndina 1998: 151-9). The copper, the earliest to appearon the Volga, was presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. traded eastward through the same socialnetworks (early Tripolye A/Mariupol) that had facilitated the diffusionof domesticated sheep and cereals. [Figure 2-3 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Twelve ritual deposits were discovered above the human graves atKhvalynsk I (FIGURE 2) (Petrenko 1984: 48-9; Agapov et al. 1990: 8-9).Eleven contained animal bones, which together totaled an MNI See Merom New Instructions. of 4horses, 9 cattle and 27 sheep/goat. Some of the deposits contained thehead and lower-limb bones of caprines or cattle, apparently from`head-and-hoof' offerings. One of the graves, no. 115, contained 35sheep astragalus astragalus/as��trag��a��lus/ (as-trag��ah-lus) talus.astrag��alar as��trag��a��lusn.See talus. bones, representing at least 22 individuals (Petrenko1984: 48). Horse bones were included in three ritual deposits. Ritual depositno. 2 contained three horse first phalanges phalangesplural of phalanx. (1MNI) and three shellbeads. Ritual deposit no. 3 contained five first phalanges from at leasttwo horses, with unspecified cattle bones. Ritual deposit no. 4 was in alarge, ochre-stained pit over the graves (nos. 90 & 91) of an adultmale and an adolescent (FIGURE 3). It contained horse phalanges and atibia tibia:see leg. (1MNI), fragments of the skull and lower-leg bones of an adultsheep (1MNI) and unspecified bones of adult cattle (1MNI) (Agapov et al.1990: 8). Horse bones were grouped with cattle and sheep bones in two ofthese three deposits. Except for one boar's tusk ornament, noobviously wild animal remains were included in the ritual deposits atKhvalynsk. In the Samara River valley, north of Khvalynsk, an Early Eneolithiccemetery of nine graves was found at S'yezzhe (Vasiliev &Matveeva 1979). Above the graves in soil deeply stained with red ochrewere the sherds of two broken pottery vessels of the S'yezzhe type(thought to be somewhat older than Khvalynsk), shell beads, a boneharpoon harpoon(härpn`), weapon used for spearing whales and large fish. The early type was a flat triangular piece of metal with barbed edges and a socket for attaching a wooden handle, to the and the skulls and lower extremity lower extremityn.The hip, thigh, leg, ankle, or foot. Also called inferior limb, pelvic limb. bones (astragali andphalanges) of two horses. Nearby, but outside the area of ochre-stainedsoil, were two figurines of horses carved on flat pieces of bone (FIGURE4). A similar bone plaque shaped like two opposed cattle heads was foundin one of the graves, apparently used as an ornament. [Figure 4 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Other Late Neolithic/Eneolithic sites in the western steppescontain similar deposits. Carved bone horse figurines (FIGURE 4) wererecovered from a Khvalynsk-culture cemetery at Lipovyi Ovrag and fromthe Eneolithic settlement at Varfolomievka (Yudin 1998). Near theVarfolomievka settlement was a small cemetery of four human graves,where a horse skull and `other bones' formed part of a ritualdeposit (Yudin 1998: 101). At the Mariupol-culture cemetery ofNikol'skoe on the Dnieper, fragments of horse bones and teeth werefound in an ochrestained graveside grave��side?n.The area beside a grave. surface deposit like those atS'ezzhye and Varfolomievka (Telegin 1987: 130). The graveside ritual deposits and carved horse images at thesesites confirm the evidence of the Khvalynsk cemetery. Horses werestrongly associated with the world of humans and had become an importantsymbol in mortuary rituals by about 5000 BC. Cattle, sheep/goats andhorses supplied most of the meat in the diet. At the Khvalynsk cemetery,horses were grouped with domesticated cattle and sheep in deposits thatexcluded obviously wild animals WILD ANIMALS. Animals in a state of nature; animals ferae naturae. Vide Animals; Ferae naturae. . In terms of symbolic representation,horses were unlike wild animals and like domesticated ones. The ritual role of horses in the Eneolithic suggests that we shouldbe cautious about interpreting horse bones in purely economic terms.Levine's (1990; 1999a) age-and-sex analysis of the slaughteredhorses at Dereivka established that most of the sexable mandibles werefrom stallions in their prime, about 7-8 years old. This slaughterprofile, inconsistent with most hunting patterns and most herdmanagement patterns, suggested to Levine that the Dereivka horses hadbeen killed by hunters who stalked wild horse bands and killed stallionswhen they advanced to protect their harems -- a difficult andinefficient way to hunt horses (stallions usually run away as soon astheir harem escapes,) Another explanation might be more plausible.Horse, cattle and sheep heads were used in rituals in the westernsteppes beginning about 5000 BC. If mature stallions were preferred forritual use in the Eneolithic, as they were in later steppe prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to (Mallory 1981), their head elements, including teeth, might be found inhigh percentages in places where rituals occurred. The horse metapodials(lower limb) from Dereivka support the possibility that horses mighthave been manipulated for symbolic reasons. The metapodials that weresplit and used for food are divided about equally between right and leftside elements (Levine 1999b); but the whole metatarsals, whichpresumably were not eaten, are almost exclusively (17 of 18) from theleft side (Bibikova 1969: 63). Reserved from normal dietary usage, thesebones suggest symbolic selection rather than random butchering. Bit wear with organic bits We have studied modern [P.sub.2] s from 52 domestic and 20 feral feraluntamed; often used in the sense of having escaped from domesticity and run wild. horses in order to understand how bitting affects horse teeth. Theearliest bits probably were made of organic materials, unlike the bitsused on our modern specimens. To define the effects of organic bits onhorse [P.sub.2] s, we conducted a riding experiment using organic bitson four previously unbitted horses. A full report is published elsewhere(Brown & Anthony 1998). Here we need only review three conclusionsin order to support our identification of bit wear at the Eneolithicsite of Botai in Kazakhstan. First, bit wear in the form of a significant bevel bevel,n the inclination that one surface makes with another when not at right angles; in cavity preparation, a cut that produces an angle of more than 90° with a cavity wall. on the front ormesial mesial/me��si��al/ (me��ze-al) nearer the center of the dental arch. me��si��aladj.1. Of, in, near, or toward the middle.2. corner of the [P.sub.2] is a common pathology among bittedhorses. Of the horses in our modern study group that were riddenfrequently with a metal bit, 92% had bit wear on at least one side ofthe mouth. Significant mesial bevels have been described on ancientEgyptian (Clutton-Brock 1974), Avar (Bokonyi 1972) and Etruscan(Azzaroli 1980) horses, and we have studied this kind of wear on the[P.sub.2] s of equids from varied contexts: Avar, Roman, Greek,Scythian, Late Bronze Age (Russia), Middle Bronze Age (Russia), EarlyBronze Age (Serbia) and Iranian Bronze Age (Malyan, Kaftari phase). Second, it is now clear that an organic bit can cause bit wear. Inour experiment four horses were ridden for 150 hours each with bits madeof hemp hemp,common name for a tall annual herb (Cannabis sativa) of the family Cannabinaceae, native to Asia but now widespread because of its formerly large-scale cultivation for the bast fiber (also called hemp) and for the drugs it yields. rope, horsehair horse��hair?n.1. The hair of a horse, especially from the mane or tail.2. Cloth made of the hair of horses.horsehairNoun rope, leather or bone. All four bits showed wearfrom being chewed, and all four horses showed increases in the bevelingof the mesial corner of the [P.sub.2] (FIGURES 5 & 6). The greatestincreases occurred with the hemp rope and bone bits. After 150 hours ofriding, these horses had bevels of 2.0-2.5 mm, about two standarddeviations above the mean bevel measurement (0.78, SD 0.66) for 24never-bitted horses. [FIGURES 5-6 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Finally, among mature horses, three years or older, mesial bevelsof 3.0 mm or more (the threshold we have set for archaeological studies)are common only in bitted populations. Levine (1999: 33) has noted thata large bevel might be produced naturally by pathological malocclusion MalocclusionDefinitionMalocclusion is a problem in the way the upper and lower teeth fit together in biting or chewing. The word malocclusion literally means "bad bite. ,so a single beveled [P.sub.2] can never be proof of bitting. But we havenot yet encountered a mesial bevel of 3.0 mm among mature never-bittedhorses. Such pathologies must be unusual in the wild. The largest mesialbevel measurement that we recorded among 24 never-bitted horses was 2.0mm, the mean 0.78 mm and the median 0.50 mm. Among 47 horses bitted withmetal bits, including some bitted only infrequently, the largest mesialbevel was 10 mm, the mean 3.11 mm and the median 2.5 mm (Brown &Anthony 1998). Bit wear at Botai The Botai culture developed after 3500 BC in the northern steppesof Kazakhstan, east of the Ishim River (Zaibert 1993; Levine &Kislenko 1997; Brown & Anthony 1998; Levine 1999; Olsen 1999). Mostof the radiocarbon dates from Botai-culture sites and relatedTersek-culture sites, west of the Ishim, average between 3500 and 3000BC. The faunal collection from Botai made available to us in 1992included 19 undamaged [P.sub.2] s certainly from horses more than 3years old, mature enough to evaluate for bit wear. Five of these teeth(3 MNI), or 26% of the mature measurable [P.sub.2] s from Botai, hadsignificant bevel measurements (FIGURE 6). Two had bevels of 3 mm, one3.5 mm, one 4 mm and one 6 mm. Mesial bevel measurements of 3.0 mm ormore are common only among bitted horses. We are reasonably certain thatsome horses at Botai were bitted and ridden for hundreds of hours. [FIGURE 6 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] At Botai, horses account for 99.9% of the 300,000 identified animalbones (Akhinzhalov et al. 1992: 40-53). Horses were an important dietaryspecies in Tersek sites as well: at Kozhai 1 horses accounted for 66.1%of 70,000 identified animal bones, with saiga saiga:see antelope. following at 21.8%, onagerat 9.4% and bison (perhaps also some cattle?) at 2.1% (Logvin et al.1989; Logvin 1992). The Botai--Tersek people had few or no domesticatedanimals other than horses. They relied on horses for most of their meatdiet, to a degree unparalleled in Eurasia during the Holocene. A partiallist of the other species represented in the Botai-culture settlementbone middens (primarily by teeth and phalanges) includes a very largebovid bovidAny ruminant of the family Bovidae. Bovids have hollow, unbranched, permanently attached horns; they are grazing or browsing animals found in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, most often in grasslands, scrublands, or deserts. Most species live in large herds. , probably bison, perhaps aurochs aurochs:see cattle. aurochsor aurochExtinct wild ox (Bos primigenius) of Europe, the species from which cattle are probably descended. The aurochs survived in central Poland until 1627. It was black, stood 6 ft (1. ; elk; red deer; roe deer; boar;bear; beaver; saiga antelope “Saiga” redirects here. For the shotgun named after the antelope, see Saiga-12.The Saiga (Saiga tatarica) is an antelope which originally inhabited a vast area of the eurasian steppe zone from the foothils of the Carpathians and Caucasus into Dzungaria ; and gazelle gazelle,name for the many species of delicate, graceful antelopes of the genus Gazella, inhabiting arid, open country. Most gazelles are found only in Africa, but several species range over N Africa and SW Asia; the Persian, or goitered, gazelle ( (Akhinzhalov et al. 1992: 52;Olsen pers. comm.). Horses, not the easiest prey for people on foot,were overwhelmingly preferred over these other species. Botai horses were big enough to ride comfortably, contrary to themisconception that early steppe horses were the size of donkeys (Renfrew1996: 83--4). Seventy percent of the horses At Boat stood 136--144 cm atthe withers withersthe region over the backline where the neck joins the thorax and where the dorsal margins of the scapulae lie just below the skin.fistulous witherssee fistulous withers. , or about 13--14 hands (Akhinzhalov et al. 1992: 51). AtDereivka, 75% of the horses stood between 133--137 cm (Bibikova 1970:124). Both were larger than the average horses ridden by the Romancavalry, commonly 110--130 cm; and about the same stature as those ofthe American Plains Indians, about 130--140 cm (Hyland 1990: 16--26;Ewers 1955: 33). Bit wear at other steppe sites Not far from Botai is the Terminal Botai/Bronze Age site ofSergeivka (Kislenko & Tatarintseva 1990), dated by radiocarbon toabout 2600--2800 BC (not 2200 BC, as reported in Levine & Kislenko1997: 300). The animal bones (635 NISP NISP National Industrial Symbiosis Programme (UK)NISP National Industrial Security ProgramNISP Neutron Instrument Simulation PackageNISP National Individual Security ProgramNISP Nutrition Services Incentive Program ) included sheep (253), horse(129), cattle (16), short-horned bison and wolf (Akhinzhalov et al.1992: 55). Among 10 measurable horse [P.sub.2] s from Sergeivka we foundsignificant bevel measurements on three right [P.sub.2] s. The threeSergeivka teeth with bit wear represent about 30% of the examined[P.sub.2] s, much like the percentage at Botai. Significant bevelmeasurements (6.0 and 5.0 mm) also appeared on both [P.sub.2] s of astallion buried in Kurgan Kurgan(krgän`), city (1989 pop. 356,000), capital of Kurgan region, W Siberian Russia, on the Tobol River. 6, grave 4 at Utyevka VI, a Middle Bronze AgePotapovka cemetery near Samara, Russia (Vasiliev et al. 1995); the gravealso contained elaborate cheekpieces and is dated by radiocarbon toabout 2000 BC (TABLE 1: 43, 44). Finally, bit wear (4 mm bevel) appearson one of four measurable horse [P.sub.2] s we examined from Kulevchi,an Alakul--Petrovka (Andronovo) settlement near Chelyabinsk (Vinogradov1995), probably occupied about 1800-1600 BC. An actual chariot burialhas been dated at nearby Krivoe Ozero to about 1900--2000 SC (Anthony& Vinogradov 1995). Bit wear at Utyevka VI and Kulevchi might belinked to the early use of chariots. Conclusion It has been said that the evidence for horse domestication in thesteppe Eneolithic amounts to no more than a numerical increase in horsebones during the Sredni Stog period (Uerpmann 1995: 20). This is nottrue. Horses, with cattle and sheep, were a regular and significant partof the diet in the steppes west of the Ural Mountains beginning before5000 BC and continuing through the Eneolithic. Horses also wereimportant in ritual by 5000 BC. Horse heads and/ or extremities andcarved bone figurines of horses were deposited in ochre-stained pitsabove human graves. Symbolically and economically, horses were likecattle and sheep and unlike wild animals. By 3500-3000 BC, horses werebeing bitted and ridden, probably to hunt wild horses, at Botai, east ofthe Urals. The importance of horseback riding is often discussed from amilitary perspective only. The economic role of riding was at least asimportant in the steppes. Riding increased the efficiency, and thereforethe potential scale, of grassland herding. Steppe ethnographic accountssuggest that a single herder with a good dog could manage about 150--200sheep on foot.(2) On horseback, he could manage 500 (Khazanov 1994:32).With a horse and a wagon pulled by oxen oxenadult castrated male of any breed of Bos spp. , he could carry enough tents andsupplies so that he and his family could live with the larger herd formonths at a time, even in bad weather. The wagon's ability to movethe herder's home to distant summer pastures multiplied thepotential scale of grassland herding a second time, making even largerherds possible. That combination -- grazing stock, horses and wagons -- cametogether about 3500-3000 BC with the Yamnaya culture. It was acombination that forever changed the human ecology of the Eurasiansteppes. The spread of Yamnaya traditions coincided with thedisappearance of settlements across the western steppes and the adoptionof a much more mobile form of pastoral or semi-pastoral economy.Horseback riding is documented by bit wear at Botai, east of the UralMountains, at about the same time. It is difficult to imagine that itdeveloped first among the hunters of northern Kazakhstan, when horses,cattle and sheep had been central in the economy of the western steppes1500 years before Botai. It will not be easy to find Yamnaya bit wear inthe absence of large settlement faunal samples, but by 3500 Be, peoplein the steppes were riding. (1) All BC dates in this paper have been calibrated using the OxCalor Calib programs. All BP dates are uncalibrated. See Timofeev &Zaitseva 1997 for an expanded list. (2) A `good dog' means a sheepdog, bred as a herder, not justa guard dog. It is not at all clear when true herding dogs arose. Theywere known in Roman times (Clutton-Brock 1995), but it is difficult tosay how much earlier. If the herding dog was a recent breed, the horsewould have been even more crucial for large-scale herding in theEneolithic. Acknowledgements. We thank Dimitri Telegin and the spirit ofNatalya Belan in Kiev; Igor Vasiliev, Pavel Kuznetsov, Oleg Mochalov andAleksandr Khokhlov in Samara; Victor Zaibert and A. Kislenko inPetropavlovsk; and Nikolai Vinogradov in Chelyabinsk, for more help thanwe can possibly describe; Sandra Olsen, Sebastian Payne, NerissaRussell, Bernard Wailes, Mary Littauer and Peter Bogucki for advice andcomments; Steve Mackenzie at the Horse Training and Behavior Program,SUNY/Cobleskill, for overseeing the riding experiment; the Large Mammalfacilities at Cornell University and the University of Pennsylvania (body, education) University of Pennsylvania - The home of ENIAC and Machiavelli.http://upenn.edu/.Address: Philadelphia, PA, USA. formodern specimens; the Bureau of Land Management, Winnemucca (NV), andRon Keiper for feral specimens; and Marsha Levine and the editors ofANTIQUITY for cogent comments that greatly improved our paper. Allerrors are our own. References AGAPOV, S.A., I.B. VASILIEV & V.I. PESTRIKOVA. 1990.Khvalynskii eneoliticheskii mogil'nik. Kuibyshev: SaratovskogoUniversiteta. AKHINZHALOV, S.M., L.A. MAKAROVA & T.N. NURUMOV. 1992. 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