Expanding preschoolers' use of object descriptions and comparisons by teaching "category-descriptor" statements.

Expanding preschoolers' use of object descriptions and comparisons by teaching "category-descriptor" statements. Abstract Six preschool children, mostly from poverty-level backgrounds, weretaught to make descriptive statements about objects. Each statementbegan with one of 16 abstract category terms (e.g., parts, color,texture, location) and was followed by a more descriptive term, as m,"The parts of this hammer are a handle and a claw claw(klaw) a nail of an animal, particularly a carnivore, that is long and curved and has a sharp end.cat's claw? a woody South American vine, Uncaria tomentosa " and"The colors of this hammer are black and silver." Thecategory-descriptor statements were organized and sequenced into fourclusters and dealt with these object categories: (a) name, classmembership, parts; (b) color, shape, size, and luster; (c) weight,texture, density, and material made of; and (d) object use, how used,who uses, where located, and when used. As sets of new statements weresuccessively taught and evaluated by a multiple-probe design, the numberand diversity of probed category and descriptor (1) A word or phrase that identifies a document in an indexed information retrieval system.(2) A category name used to identify data. (operating system) descriptor terms steadily andsubstantially increased across the four clusters, and these verbalbehaviors were maintained one to two months after training. Whereas allcategory-trained (CT) preschoolers were proficient pro��fi��cient?adj.Having or marked by an advanced degree of competence, as in an art, vocation, profession, or branch of learning.n.An expert; an adept. at giving an orderedaccount of complete, precise, and diverse statements both to practicedobjects and non-practiced objects, comparison preschoolers attending thesame DISTAR DISTAR Distributed Interactive Simulation Technologies in After Action Review Language classes, but not taught statements, were much lessproductive in category and descriptor usage. The CT children alsoproduced a much larger number of same/not same object comparisons,especially when provided with prompts that highlighted the generalfeatures of certain clusters. Key Terms: Language production andgeneralization gen��er��al��i��za��tionn.1. The act or an instance of generalizing.2. A principle, a statement, or an idea having general application. ; describing objects; same-difference comparisons; verbalfluency flu��ent?adj.1. a. Able to express oneself readily and effortlessly: a fluent speaker; fluent in three languages.b. ; multiple-probe design; preschool children; DISTAR LANGUAGE ********** Being able to provide extensive, relevant, and varied descriptionsof objects is fundamental to many early communication and cognitiveactivities (Hart & Risely, 1995; Krauss & Glucksberg, 1977;Solso, 1995; Weisberg, 1992, 2002). Indeed, the ability to generate andexpand upon object descriptions is emphasized in many languageassessment and instructional tasks. Some of these descriptions appear intasks that deal with definitions, opposites, analogies, and objectcomparisons (Alexander et. al., 1989; Richard & Hanner, 1995;Weschler, 1989; Zimmerman, Steiner, & Pond, 1992). Others includethe ability to identify common objects that belong to certain classes,for instance, naming objects in the class of vehicles, tools andclothing (Engelmann & Osborn, 1976, 1977, 1987). Moreover, taskscontaining these skills have formed the basis to modify and evaluatelanguage expression in early childhood intervention Early Childhood Intervention is a support system for children with developmental delays and/or disabilities and their families.If a child experiences a developmental delay, this can compound over time. programs (Karnes,1973; Mosley & Plue, 1983). Listing, modifying, and recombining theattributes or desc riptors of objects has also been suggested as a wayto create unique object descriptions and uses (Halpern, 1989). Many children, when called upon to give descriptive accounts ofobjects, unfortunately end up with incomplete, imprecise im��pre��cise?adj.Not precise.impre��cisely adv. , andidiosyncratic id��i��o��syn��cra��sy?n. pl. id��i��o��syn��cra��sies1. A structural or behavioral characteristic peculiar to an individual or group.2. A physiological or temperamental peculiarity.3. descriptions that fail to communicate. Hart and Risley(1974) found that the free-play material requests of many preschoolchildren from poverty-level backgrounds frequently did not identify theobject by its name. Instead, they often said, "I want that."Once an appropriate request was taught as in, "I want a car,"the children often neglected to mention a descriptor that woulddistinguish one car from another either by its color, size, shape, and,in some cases, by its number. Hart and Risely (1968, 1974) taught these preschoolers to requestplay objects by referring to the object's name and a colorattribute, as in, "1 want the red truck". Such statements wereprompted initially by the teachers who asked, "What color truck doyou want?" In these procedures the child was not required to usethe dimensional term "color" in his/her answer. In addition,only adjectives or descriptors relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acccolor (e.g., red, orange,etc) were explicitly taught, though mention of adjective-noun requestsfrom non-taught dimensions relating to shape, size and number were alsorecorded. However, during and following color-noun training, noimprovements in the use of descriptors from the non-trained stimulusdimensions occurred, suggesting that both the dimensional and thedescriptor terms must be taught. Children are also not usually required to use dimensional terms toanswer questions in several pre-first grade language assessmentinstruments (Mardell-Czudnowski & Goldenberg, 1990; Richard &Hanner, 1995; Zimmerman, Steiner, & Pond, 1992). When used byexaminers to question children, such terms are limited to a select few;commonly, color, shape, and occasionally certain aspects of objectfunction (what used for and who uses). Rarely is the child asked to forman answer by making a statement that employs a dimensional term. In thequestioning procedures found in preschool curricula (Dunn, Smith, Dunn,& Horton, 1981; Engelmann & Osborn; 1976, 1977; Hedquist,Knowles, & Richardson, 1988) some dimensional-based terms are usedby teachers to invite object descriptions and comparisons (Engelmann& Carnine, 1991). Nevertheless, the children are not asked orexplicitly taught how to convey descriptions of objects by incorporatingthese dimensional terms in their answers. Other dimensional terms having the same status as color, shape andsize are weight, texture, and density (or how hard or soft an objectis). In the main, these terms have been correctly identified in theliterature as stimulus dimensions (Matlin, 1989; Pierce Pierce may refer to: PlacesPierce, Colorado, a US town Pierce, Idaho, a US city Pierce, Nebraska, a US city Pierce, Wisconsin, a US town Mount Pierce (New Hampshire), USA, a peak in the White Mountains Pierce County, several places & Epling,1995). However, given that stimulus dimensions usually refers tomeasurable, sensory-based attributes that normally lie on a singledimension, there are nonetheless qualities that pertain to pertain toverb relate to, concern, refer to, regard, be part of, belong to, apply to, bear on, befit, be relevant to, be appropriate to, appertain to objects thatare not simply sensory-based and yet have the same status as color,weight and the like. For example, what objects are made of, (oftenreferred to as materials or composition), is not considered as belongingto a single stimulus dimension or even as purely sensory sensory/sen��so��ry/ (sen��sor-e) pertaining to sensation. sen��so��ryadj.1. Of or relating to the senses or sensation.2. based. Nor areterms that refer to the naming or nominal properties of objects such asthe name of objects, their parts and the class they are in. Similarly,terms signifying Signifyin' (slang) is an African-American rhetorical device featuring indirect communication or persuasion and the creating of new meanings for old words and signs. Signifying, in this sense, includes repetition and difference, implication and association, combining words and the functional properties of objects (object use, whouses, location, and so forth) are not readily classified in theliterature as stimulus dimensions. For these reasons the designation, language category, will beemployed to cover those qualities of objects already mentioned insteadof the more limited usage inherent with terms that reflect purelysensory dimensions. Language category is also a designation givenemphasis by several investigators (see Burns, Roe, & Ross, 1999;Kirk, Mccarthy, & Kirk, 1968; Pepperberg, 1987) for the sameproperties of objects discussed herein. The relationship between language categories and what objectdescriptors the category terms should invoke To activate a program, routine, function or process. can be brought togetherthrough the expression of statements. These statements can be structuredso that a category term (or an equivalent phrase) always precedes therelevant descriptor, as in, "The color (name, part, size, luster,weight, texture and so forth) of this object is brown (a hammer, ahandle, big, dull, heavy, smooth, etc)." If successfully done, themore general (or higher-order) category term should becomediscriminative dis��crim��i��na��tive?adj.1. Drawing distinctions.2. Marked by or showing prejudice: discriminative hiring practices. for the more specific (or lower-order) descriptor term.This specific cueing function of categories should lead to an increasein the preciseness and relevancy of single-object descriptions bypreschoolers taught to make statements. Furthermore, by teaching arelatively large number of different category-descriptive statements,which in this study numbered 16, the descriptions should become moreextensive and diverse. Finally, because almost every inanimate inanimate/in��an��i��mate/ (-an��im-it)1. without life.2. lacking in animation.in��an��i��mateadj. objectcan be d escribed by reference to its parts, size, texture, object useand other categories, it is expected that whatever statements are madeto a set of trained objects should also be expressed to a set ofuntrained objects. Thus, generalization of the verbal effects ofcategory-descriptive statements should be possible. Three programming measures, all in accord with direct instructionprinciples (Becker, Engelmann & Thomas, 1975; Carnine, Silbert,& Kameenui, 1997; Engelmann & Carnine, 1991) were used forinstructional and testing purposes. First, component concepts and verbalsubskills were taught prior to their integration in the form ofstatements. That is, when necessary, a particular category term and itsassociated descriptor (stated either as an adjective adjective,English part of speech, one of the two that refer typically to attributes and together are called modifiers. The other kind of modifier is the adverb. , e.g., red, little,shiny, or as a noun noun[Lat.,=name], in English, part of speech of vast semantic range. It can be used to name a person, place, thing, idea, or time. It generally functions as subject, object, or indirect object of the verb in the sentence, and may be distinguished by a number of referent ref��er��ent?n.A person or thing to which a linguistic expression refers.Noun 1. referent - something referred to; the object of a reference , e.g., hammer, handle, made of wood) werepretaught before statement training began. Second, the wording andquestioning procedures for related concepts and the syntax syntax:see grammar. syntaxArrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts. for thecategory-descriptive statements were made sufficiently similar togenerate sameness in content structure. Keeping to this sameness instructure was expected to facilitate verbal performance. Third, thecontent structure of the statements was logically analyzed an��a��lyze?tr.v. an��a��lyzed, an��a��lyz��ing, an��a��lyz��es1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations.2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of.3. for patterns.The 16 statements were thought to comprise four fairly distinctivegroupi ngs that could serve to organize the arrangement of statementpresentation. The first grouping contained three statements whosecategories (the name, class to which the object belongs & parts)highlighted the naming or nominal aspects of objects. Next, were fourcategories (color, shape, size & luster) that focused on theappearance or extrinsic EVIDENCE, EXTRINSIC. External evidence, or that which is not contained in the body of an agreement, contract, and the like. 2. It is a general rule that extrinsic evidence cannot be admitted to contradict, explain, vary or change the terms of a contract or of a aspects of objects followed, in turn, by four(weight, texture, density & composition) aimed at more intrinsicobject aspects. The last five (what used for, how used, who uses,location, & where used) focused on the details of object function.It was expected that the nominal, extrinsic, intrinsic, and functiongroupings (called clusters), when appropriately prompted and reviewedduring training, would serve to maintain statement order. The value of building an expansive and verbally descriptiverepertoire Repertoire may mean Repertory but may also refer to: Repertoire (theatre), a system of theatrical production and performance scheduling Repertoire Records, a German record label specialising in 1960s and 1970s pop and rock reissues that is functional for a set of single objects is that thissame repertoire can have measurable and useful effects for otherdescriptive efforts. One possibility is the generation of verbalcomparisons that tell why two objects are the same and not the same.Such comparisons are critical and found in many evaluative instruments(e.g., Richard & Hanner, 1995; Terman & Merrill, 1973) and arevalued in educational curricula and everyday settings, though researchon the instructional variables that affect same/not same comparisons hasnot received the attention it deserves. A central question then iswhether category terms are useful for single-object descriptions and canalso form the basis for making same/not same comparisons between pairsof objects. Method Participants The children, whose demographics The attributes of people in a particular geographic area. Used for marketing purposes, population, ethnic origins, religion, spoken language, income and age range are examples of demographic data. are given in Table 1, attended ayear-round, intervention preschool known as the Early Childhood Day CareCenter Project. Three quarters of the children came from economicallyimpoverished im��pov��er��ished?adj.1. Reduced to poverty; poverty-stricken. See Synonyms at poor.2. Deprived of natural richness or strength; limited or depleted: backgrounds (for details, see Weisberg, 1988; Weisberg,1994) and the others were from more advantaged circumstances. Dailyinstructional classes were held using Levels 1 and 2 of the DISTARLanguage, Reading, and Arithmetic programs. Language Level 1 (Engelmann& Osborn, 1976; 1987) and Level 2 (Engelmann & Osborn, 1977)were scripted programs and each contained 160 lessons. Lesson numbershigher than 160 reflect those continued in the Level 2 program;therefore lessons 220 and 305 translate into lessons 60 and 145 of theLanguage Level 2 program. Children attending language classes either atlessons 160, 220, or 305 (see Table 1) were selected and assigned eitherto a Category Taught (CT) condition (n = 6) or to a Noncategory Taught(NCT NCT National Childbirth TrustNCT National Car TestNCT North Carolina TheatreNCT National Coordination TeamNCT Northern California TRACONNCT Noise Cancellation TechnologyNCT Network Control and TimingNCT Nicotine Replacement Therapy ) condition (n = 5). There were no significant differ ences betweenthe CT and NCT Groups on Slosson (1981) IQ measures (all df = 9 and ps> .50) at the time this experiment began (t = -.11). Differencesbetween length of time in the program was also not significant (t =-.23). The CT children participated in the relevant experimentalconditions for 6 weeks. These children were additionally probed during amaintenance session 4 to 9 weeks after training ceased. Single Object Category and Descriptor Assessment During each assessment, the examiner displayed one of 10 randomlypresented common objects (see Table 2) and said, "Tell meeverything you can about this object." Two minutes were allowed foreach descriptive account. If the child said nothing for about 10 sec,the tell-me everything instructions were repeated and, in addition, theexaminer said, "Try real hard to say one more thing about thisobject." Indications of no further comment led to the presentationof the next object. The child was free to inspect or manipulate anobject anytime during the 2 min period. Using these pre-assessmentprocedures, the CT children were probed during baseline sessions as wellas during various post-training sessions and a single maintenancesession (See Figures 1 & 4). The NCT children were probed at aboutthe same time as 2 of the CT children, KW and VW. The top five objects in Table 2 were subsequently used as training(T) objects for statement-training purposes. The bottom five objectswere not training (NT) objects and along with the T objects werepresented during the baseline and probe sessions. The NT objects wereused to evaluate the occurrence of statement generalization effects. Same/Not Same Assessment Six pairs of objects were successively presented. The stimuli forcomparison were of 3 types: concrete objects; pictures; and words thatrepresented objects or scenes. The two concrete object pairs consistedof (a) a medium-sized hand saw and a child-sized scissors and (b) anorange (fruit) and a yellow tennis ball. The two picture pairs werepasted on 3 x 5 index cards that displayed (c) a flying black and whiteeagle and a flying silver airplane airplane,aeroplane,or aircraft,heavier-than-air vehicle, mechanically driven and fitted with fixed wings that support it in flight through the dynamic action of the air. and (d) a man's brown hat and awoman's shiny black boots. The two verbally presented comparisonsutilized the words (e) car and house and (f) sky and ocean. Each pairwas shown for 4 mm, 2 mm each for same and not-same comparisons.Instructions for the concrete object and picture pairs were "Tellhow these objects are the same" and "Tell how they are not thesame." For the verbally prompted comparisons, they were "Tellhow ____ and ____ are the same," and, "Tell how they are notthe same." This assessment task was presented three times; first,as a pretest pre��test?n.1. a. A preliminary test administered to determine a student's baseline knowledge or preparedness for an educational experience or course of study.b. A test taken for practice.2. or basel ine, then again on two separate occasions afterthe CT children had completed statement training. Nature of Clusters, Categories and Descriptors and Use in DISTARLanguage Part of Table 3 lists the 16 category terms according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the ordertaught in this study. Only those category terms and related descriptorsthat were mentioned in the scripts of 10 or more tasks of the DISTARLanguage program were considered as frequently taught or presentedconcepts. These terms are identified in bold type bold typen (Typ) → caract��res mpl grasbold typen → Fettdruck mbold typen (TYP . Although thedescriptors big and little were frequently mentioned, the category termof size was mentioned only one time, at lesson 255. Thus, size was notconsidered as a taught category term. Several categories are groupedtogether to produce four super-groupings, each of which is called acluster. None of the 4 cluster terms were ever mentioned duringinstruction. Cluster is used herein to highlight or summarize sum��ma��rize?intr. & tr.v. sum��ma��rized, sum��ma��riz��ing, sum��ma��riz��esTo make a summary or make a summary of.sum its use as(a) a response prompt; (b) part of a functional relationship (see Figure4); and (c) a means to organize and to interpret data. The DISTAR Language scripts mentioned several T and NT objects.Considering each of the 3 nominal categories in Table 3 and startingwith the names of objects, the Language program mentioned the names ofall 10 objects except thermos. For classes, the classificationspresented (and the objects specifically mentioned for eachclassification) were tools (hammer & paintbrush (graphics, tool) Paintbrush - A Microsoft Windows tool for creating bitmap graphics. ), clothing (belt),food (banana banana,name for several species of the genus Musa and for the fruits these produce. The banana plant—one of the largest herbaceous plants—is said to be native to tropical Asia, but is now cultivated throughout the tropics. ), plants (flower), containers (envelope) and furniture(table). For object parts, they included the most common parts found ina hammer, a belt, and a flower. For the descriptors associated withextrinsic-based categories, additional descriptors were presented inthis study for object shape and object composition (or what the objectis made of). For shape, these additions were round, curved, looks like astick as well as the use of similes (e.g., for a banana, "its likepart of the moon."). One additional descriptor was taught forobject materials and that was cardboard Cardboard is a generic non-specific term for a heavy duty paper based product. PaperboardMain article: PaperboardPaperboard is a paper based material. It is often used for folding cartons, set-up boxes, carded packaging, etc. for cereal cerealor grainAny grass yielding starchy seeds suitable for food. The most commonly cultivated cereals are wheat, rice, rye, oats, barley, corn, and sorghum. As human food, cereals are usually marketed in raw grain form or as ingredients of food products. box. The likelymaterials ass ociated with a hammer, a table, and a telephone wereconsidered in the Language program. Most of the first 11 categories were effectively summarized by asingle word. For the function categories, except for location, it proveddifficult to use a single term. Instead, the summary phases for functionin Table 3 were used. Examination of DISTAR Language indicated coverageof categories dealing with what an object is used for, who uses it, andwhere it's found. These function-based categories were mentioned intasks that dealt with common information (occupations and where naturaland common manufactured objects were found) and during instruction inmaking up questions, definitions, and analogies. Tasks about objectparts also had questions about the object's use and its location. Major differences between DISTAR Language and this study. The modelfor this research was to apply a fairly large number of descriptors in asystematically and in a prescribed pre��scribe?v. pre��scribed, pre��scrib��ing, pre��scribesv.tr.1. To set down as a rule or guide; enjoin. See Synonyms at dictate.2. To order the use of (a medicine or other treatment). sequence to each of a small number ofthree-dimensional concrete objects, i. e., the 5 T objects. That was notthe case in DISTAR Language. Although, a very large number of differentobjects served as examples for descriptor terms in many tasks, no singleobject received a complete and organized verbal account using thedescriptors in Table 3. At most thee descriptors were associated withone object in any task and they could be mentioned in any order.Moreover, the objects to be described were almost always presented inpictured form or expressed through words. For example, worksheets wereused to teach colors and shapes; the children were taught to identifydifferent colors before coloring certain objects and to identifydifferent-shaped objects that were also colored. To teach parts,pictures of whole objects, separated by their part s, were shown. Forobject composition, pictures that depicted de��pict?tr.v. de��pict��ed, de��pict��ing, de��picts1. To represent in a picture or sculpture.2. To represent in words; describe. See Synonyms at represent. sets of familiar objects allcomposed of the same material were presented and the children were laterasked to label objects made of that material. Similarly, the scriptspertaining per��tain?intr.v. per��tained, per��tain��ing, per��tains1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident.2. to function categories did not prescribe pre��scribev.To give directions, either orally or in writing, for the preparation and administration of a remedy to be used in the treatment of a disease. that concreteobjects be shown to support object use. Infrequently in��fre��quent?adj.1. Not occurring regularly; occasional or rare: an infrequent guest.2. , descriptions ofconcrete objects were presented; for example, the students were shown afellow student's shoe and asked to identify its parts and tell whateach part was made of. However, the scripts rarely called for thepresentation of concrete objects and never requested that the childrentell everything about them. Finally, descriptors included in astatements about an object obviously could not be preceded by or includecategory terms that were never presented or taught. Even when such termsappeared in a teacher's question (e. g., about shape), they werenot necessarily mentioned in the student's statement. Instead, thestudent's statement often mentioned o nly the descriptor terms asin, "A table has a top and a table has legs" or "It is atriangle" rather than "The parts of a table are a top andleg." or "The shape of _____ is a triangle." Training for the Category-Taught Children General considerations. Following baseline assessments, the CTchildren were individually taught 3 to 5 times per week in an unusedoffice. They were told, "You're going to learn how to tellabout the objects I show you." The order of presenting the 5 Tobjects was counterbalanced and varied among children within the sametraining sessions and across sessions. Worth reemphasizing is that thetraining procedure dealt with attempts to improve single-objectdescriptions through instruction in making category-descriptivestatements. Instruction was not given in making comparisons betweenobjects according to similarities or differences, though DISTAR Languagefeatured a number of tasks having that goal. The four steps shown in the top half of Table 4 were used inteaching every statement for each of the 5 T objects. Other samplequestions about descriptors relevant to step 1 are: "Tell me aboutthe class this object is in"; or, "Tell me about theluster" (or, about the weight) or, "What would you use thisobject for?" Appropriate answers could be "tools,""shiny," ("heavy") and "banging in nails."Examples of other modeled statements for step 2 are: "The luster ofthis object is shiny" and "The location of this object is atool box." If in step 3, luster or location were to be the promptedcategory term, the teacher's prompted request was, "Make astatement about the luster (location) of this object." In step 4,the teacher simply said, "Make a statement about this object."When presented, each of the 16 category-descriptor statements made tonon-prompted step 4 questions had to be correctly expressed twice in arow to each of the T objects, which were randomly presented in blocks of5 trials. Questions abou t descriptors were asked even if they werementioned in DISTAR Language. Table 5 provides 16 possible category-descriptor statements for oneof the training objects--hammer. The sample statements about this objectare not meant to be exhaustive. Additional descriptors of the hammer,based on other physical properties (see Table 2), are possible, forexample, parts (claws), color (black), objects made of (wood, rubber),as are a variety of other descriptors stemming from severalfunction-based categories. Teaching category terms without bipolar (1) See bipolar transmission.(2) One of two major categories of transistor; the other is "field effect transistor" (FET). Although the first transistors and first silicon chips were bipolar, most chips today are field effect transistors wired as CMOS logic, which descriptors. Except for thebipolar descriptors of six categories (size, luster and the 4 intrinsiccategories), the training of descriptors and statements for the other 10categories in Table 3 was accomplished by keeping to the top fourtraining steps in Table 4 without any further elaboration beingnecessary. However, special instruction that preceded the 4-stepprocedure was necessary for the categories that featured bipolardescriptors such as big-little, shiny-dull, etc. Teaching category terms with bipolar descriptors and use ofadditional training objects. The bottom half of Table 4 provides the6-step training sequence for those categories with bipolar descriptors.For descriptor assessment in steps 1 and 4, the 5 T objects wererandomized ran��dom��ize?tr.v. ran��dom��ized, ran��dom��iz��ing, ran��dom��iz��esTo make random in arrangement, especially in order to control the variables in an experiment. and presented until identification of the descriptor wascorrect 10 times in a row. The procedure for labeling the oppositedescriptor in step 3 is described in Becker, et. al., 1975, p.149.). Thedescriptors, big and small, were already known and, after meeting thetraining criterion for step 4 (10-correst-descriptors in a row), sizewas defined in step 5 as, "Size tells how big or small on objectlooks." Following the step 6 testing of the category and descriptorterms for the 5 T objects, the 4-step statement-training procedurebegan. The descriptors, shiny and dull, were in presented several DISTARLanguage tasks, and these were taught to the CT children. In these taskspairs of pictured objects were presented. One object looked brig ht(because the Sun was shining on it or it had been washed) and it wasidentified as being shiny. The other contrasting object did not reflectlight or was unwashed and, after initially being called not shiny, itwas soon called, dull. Following these tasks, the definition of lusterfor step 5 was "Luster tells how shiny or dull an objectlooks." As was done with size, the same 6-step training procedurewas then applied to the 5 T objects followed in turn by the 4-stepstatement training procedure. Because the 5 T objects did not offer a sufficient number ofexamples to teach the bipolar descriptors associated with the categoriesof weight, texture, and density, additional training objects were usedto highlight these descriptors. For the category of texture, forexample, among the extra objects presented to teach roughness werethings made of burlap, terrycloth, cinderblock, steel wool steel wool,abrasive material composed of long steel fibers of varying degrees of fineness that are matted together. The coarser grades are used to remove paint and other finishes, the finer grades for polishing or smoothing a finished surface. , anddifferent grades of sandpaper sandpaper,abrasive originally made by gluing grains of sand to heavy paper sheets. Today sandpaper is made primarily with quartz, aluminum oxide, or silicon carbide grains, and is graded according to the size of the grains. . These surfaces were compared to smoothsurfaces typified by silk, Styrofoam, leather, glass and metals. Thepresentation of the additional training objects for the bipolardescriptors associated with weight, texture and density always precededinstruction with the 5 T objects. Using texture as an illustration, theassessment of descriptors in steps 1 and 4 were applied to a sample of10 additional training objects (5 with smooth surfaces & 5 withrough surfaces) and the same 10 in-a-row-correct criteria used. Steps 2and 3 were used to label the descriptors of the additional training objects. Then, as indicated in step 5 of Table 4, texture was defined as,"how smooth or rough an object is." Testing of the categoryand descriptor terms ensued in step 6. The step 6 questions also servedto prepare the children to understand and verbalize these same termsduring the upcoming statement-training phase shown in the top half ofTable 4. The corresponding step 5 definitions of weight and density were"Weight (Density) tells how heavy or light (how hard or soft) anobject is". Special object manipulation procedures. Only during thedescriptor-learning phase (i. e., steps 1-4 in the bottom of Table 4)were the CT children taught unique ways of holding and feeling objectsin order to find out about the relevant descriptors for texture, weightand density. These manipulations were performed both with the additionaltraining objects and, subsequently, with the 5 T objects. For texture,one finger was placed over the surface and rubbed across it. If itresulted in a quick and even sweep without any bumps bumpsa term used to describe a variety of papulonodular dermatoses in horses, including 'heat bumps', 'feed bumps', 'protein bumps', 'wheat bumps' and others. No specific disease or etiology has been assigned to the term and veterinary dermatologists wish it would disappear from use. being felt, as withglass, the surface was considered "smooth"; if the surfacefelt scratchy, as with burlap, it was "rough." Once thisdiscrimination met performance criteria with the additional trainingobjects, these same classification and handling procedures plus the samelearning criterion were applied to the 5 T objects and, if appropriate,to certain distinctive object parts, as with the ball and claw of thehammer. To highlight weight, the object was lifted and held in the palms ofboth hands while "weighing-like" motions were made. At theappropriate step, the child was told to say "light" or"heavy" based upon, "how other objects you lifted havefelt." For density judgments, one hand pressed or squeezed thesides or ends of the object; if the object did not bend or Bend Or (1877-1903) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse who won the 1880 edition of the Epsom Derby. His regular jockey Fred Archer, winner of thirteen consecutive British jockey titles, said Bend Or was probably the greatest horse he had ever ridden. yield topressure, the density was "hard." If the object was easy tobend or tear, it was described as "soft." If any object wastoo large, it was placed on a table where the appropriate manipulationwas performed. The teacher initially modeled how to identify thecritical descriptors for a few manipulated objects; thereafter the childperformed the operations without help. The DISTAR Language program had tasks that presented thedescriptors smooth and rough through pairs of pictured objects, onelooking smooth (and, if felt, would feel nice) and the other lookingrough (and, if felt, would hurt). These tasks were not used. Instead, asalready described, smooth and rough were taught by the children feelingthe surfaces of objects. For the last intrinsic category about object composition, DISTARLanguage used the category phrase, "made of." These words wereused instead of teaching a single word such as composition, a term morein keeping with the syntax found in most statements. In step 1, thetraining request was, "Tell me about what this object is madeof," and the statement that was modeled and tested in steps 2 and 3was, "This object is made of _____." To evoke e��voke?tr.v. e��voked, e��vok��ing, e��vokes1. To summon or call forth: actions that evoked our mistrust.2. the more lengthy content-relevant descriptions for most ofthe five function-based categories, the teacher initially assessed thechild's fund of information and, if found wanting, furnished fur��nish?tr.v. fur��nished, fur��nish��ing, fur��nish��es1. To equip with what is needed, especially to provide furniture for.2. feedback until category-descriptor statements could be independentlyexpressed. Thus, after showing the belt and asking in step1, "Tellme about the use of this object," and obtaining the reply,"for holding up pants," the teacher would continue training bymodeling and encouraging the child to say, "The use of this objectis for holding up pants." The statements taught for the other fourfunction categories in Table 3 were: (2) "The way to use thisobject is by___" (How an object was normally used was shown bydirect physical manipulation Physical manipulationThe use of deep massage, spinal alignment, and joint manipulation to stimulate tissues.Mentioned in: Naturopathic Medicine or by stating the steps involved); (3)"The person who uses this object is ____"; (4) "Thelocation of this object is ___"; and (5) "The time to use thisobject is ___." Maintaining statement accuracy and order. Having the childrenverbalize each of the category-descriptor statements with reasonablefidelity and to state them in an order that matched the sequence taughtwas expected to generate a sizeable number of descriptors ofconsiderable diversity and preciseness. Several measures were taken topreserve the accuracy of each statement and to keep the order intact.One was the relatively extensive review that the statements received.Each time a new statement was taught, those that preceded it werereviewed. Thus, before the 6th statement about the shape of objects wastaught (Table 3), review of the 5 previous statements was undertaken.The learning criterion for judging the correct sequence depended uponthe number of statements taught. For the first 3 nominal statements, thecriterion was a single errorless run of statements that followed theorder taught for each of the 5 T objects. Beyond 3 statements, 2different criteria had to be met. The first fixed the percentage ofproperly worded statements made to each T object in the sequence at 80%or higher. Thus, sequences, for example containing 4, 9, 11 and 16statements, required (multiplying each number by .80 and roundingupwards), respectively, a minimum of 4, 7, 9, and 13 appropriatelyworded statements per object. The second criterion dealt with sequenceerrors. These consisted of either the omission omissionn. 1) failure to perform an act agreed to, where there is a duty to an individual or the public to act (including omitting to take care) or is required by law. Such an omission may give rise to a lawsuit in the same way as a negligent or improper act. of a relevantcategory-descriptor statement or it being said in an order differentfrom that taught. For sequences that contained 3 statements, the numberof permissible per��mis��si��ble?adj.Permitted; allowable: permissible tax deductions; permissible behavior in school.per��mis sequence errors was 0. For 5 to 7 statements, it was 1.For 8 to 11 statements, it was 2, and for 12 to 16 statements, it was 3.Even though a set number of categories were specifically mentioned, thechildren were not told to remember the number of statements made for thenominal or for any other clusters, nor were they told that they had tosay 16 statements. In addition, the child was not informed about howmany statements were made through the use of o rdinal terms (first,second, third, etc); the teacher simply said, "Say the next (oranother) statement." The three categories that belonged to the nominal cluster shared ageneral behavioral pattern In software engineering, behavioral design patterns are design patterns that identify common communication patterns between objects and realize these patterns. By doing so, these patterns increase flexibility in carrying out this communication. , that of naming things, whereas each of theparticular categories defined a specific kind of naming, that is, namingobjects, naming classes and naming parts. Given that thegeneral-specific behavioral breakdown also applied to the other threeclusters and to the respective categories, it made sense to use thesedifferent aspects as organizational markers for learning the sequence ofstatements. Thus, after the statements for the 3 nominal categories weremastered, the next time the statements were reviewed, the followinggeneral prompt was given: "Get ready to do some naming about eachobject." Then, the specific category members of the naming ornominal cluster were prompted: "Make statements about the name ofeach object, the name of the class each object is in, and the name ofthe parts of each object." Prior to the review of the extrinsiccluster, the general prompt given was, "Get ready to do somelooking at ea ch object". The prompts for specific members were:"Make statements about their color, size, shape, and luster."For the intrinsic cluster, the corresponding prompts were, "Getready to do some holding and feeling of each object. Make statementsabout the weight, texture, density, and what it's made of."For the function cluster, they were: "Get ready to do some thinkingabout the use of each object. Make statements about the use of theobject, the way to use it, who uses it, the location, and the time touse it." With additional opportunities for review, the specific categorymembers of a cluster were deleted DeletedA security that is no longer included on a specified market. Sometimes referred to as "delisted".Notes:Reasons for delisting include violating regulations, failing to meet financial specifications set out by the stock exchange and going bankrupt. and only the general prompt thatsummarized common behaviors remained. Thus, the shortened form became,"Get ready to do some naming (looking at, holding and feeling, andthinking about the uses) of each object." In time, the generalprompts were also removed. The specific and general prompt-removalprocess began with the nominal cluster and, in turn, shifted to andincluded the extrinsic, intrinsic, and function clusters. Another source of organization derives from the fact that theobjects used to identify the bipolar descriptors for the intrinsiccategories were always held in a certain way and in the same sequence.The objects were first held with both hands cupped under it (forweight), followed by one hand placed over the object to stroke itssurface (for texture) and finally by that hand pushed or squeezedagainst the objects' side (for density). Then, to describe thethings the object was made of, the child was asked to touch it and tryto tell about the things it was made of. Training for the Noncategory-Trained Children As with the CT children, the NCT children continued to receivegroup instruction in the DISTAR Language classes. For this study, theNCT children were also individually seen 2 to 3 times each week whenthey were asked to engage in make-believe play by talking about andhandling each of the 5 T objects for 2 mm. The teacher praised andcommented on their interactions in a manner that did not identify theobject by any category terms or related descriptors. Same/Not Same Comparisons Tasks in DISTAR Language In early sameness comparisons, pairs of objects are distinguishedby what the objects do (which conforms to a used-for category), wherethey are seen (where-found or location) and what classes they are in.However, the final statements given by the children do not alwaysinclude both category and descriptor terms. Both terms are included inlocation-based statements, as in "The Sun and the Moon are the samebecause you see them (both) in the sky." For what used for, bothterms are not included. Scissors and a knife are said to be the same"because they both cut things" rather than, "because theyare both used to cut things." For object class, objects are simplyidentified as being in the same or different classes. That is, anacceptable answer for a hat and a shirt is "They are the in sameclass," rather than, "because they are in the same class ofclothing." In parts of tasks calling for two differences between abroom broom,common name for plants of two closely related and similar Old World genera, Cytisus and Genista, of the family Leguminosae (pulse family). and a toothbrush, one difference statement identifies the categoryand descriptor terms, a s in, "A broom is found in a kitchen, but atoothbrush is found in the bathroom". However, a second differencestatement distinguishes between these objects only by descriptors as in,"A broom is big, but a toothbrush is not big." A differencestatement utilizing the word size is not possible because that term hasnot been taught in the program. The parts of objects as well as thecommon name given to sets of objects and what objects are made of alsoserve as a basis for comparisons in the program; however, these categoryterms are usually not included in the statements that the children make. As more same/not same (S/NS S/NS Success/No Success ) tasks are presented, individualchildren are urged to generate their own comparisons. Here the teacheris free to decide what to do. One possible tactic is to both acknowledgeand suggest comparisons based on unifying category terms and to ensurethat the children use them in statements. Unfortunately, the degree towhich that tactic was systematically employed in the DISTAR Languageclasses cannot be assessed. Additionally, in these open-ended andfrequently employed instructional procedures, words are the only meansto present the contrasting pair of objects. The consequences of purelysymbolic modes of presentation is that categories based on anobject's color, shape, luster, weight, texture and composition arelikely to receive less usage than if concrete objects and pictures hadbeen used. None of the 6 pairs of experimental objects was specificallycontrasted in DISTAR Language. However, the contrasting words, bird andairplane, came close to the experimental pair of the picture of theblack and white eagle and a silver airplane. When bird and airplane weredistinguished, it was never more than in 3 ways. A single member of apair was occasionally mentioned, usually in the form of words. Hat, saw,and boots were separately mentioned, but, as words, they cannot conveythe special features of any of these objects had they been presented asobjects and in pictures. Three of 4 experimental words, house, sky andocean, were mentioned in the language program. Scoring and Interobserver Reliability For single object categories and descriptions. To determine themost common descriptors for each category, 20 college students prior tothis experiment were individually shown the 10 objects and asked towrite the most common descriptors. Definitions of the 16 category termswere provided. No more than three descriptors per category werepermitted. Given the plan to teach only bipolar descriptors for size,luster, weight, texture, and density, the students were asked to use"either-or" descriptors (big-little, shiny-dull, etc.). Forshape, they were asked to provide a noun form (circle, triangle, etc.)rather than an adjective (circular, triangular), again to matchinstructional plans. The 3 most frequent descriptors per object bycategory were tallied and the mean percent of students offering the samedescriptors for a category was established. The list of descriptors,agreed upon Adj. 1. agreed upon - constituted or contracted by stipulation or agreement; "stipulatory obligations"stipulatorynoncontroversial, uncontroversial - not likely to arouse controversy by at least 75% of the college students, became the basisfor scoring the children's protocols. In addition, 4 pre-firstgrade te achers, with 3 or more years of experience, all agreed thatevery descriptor was reasonable to use for each category. Each child's object descriptions were recorded and transcribedduring all baseline (i. e., during pre-assessment) and probe sessions.Category and descriptor terms were separately scored. For every object,1 point was given for every non-repeated category term and 1 point foreach descriptive noun or adjective. Thus, the answers for a givenobject, "The color is green", The color is red," and,"The color is black," received altogether only 1 point for thecategory term, color, and 3 points altogether for descriptors.Statements, if given, did not need to resemble the form taught to the CTchildren. The answer, "It is big and colored red and black,"received 1 point for the category term (color) and 3 points fordescriptor components. However, "It is little and green,"received 2 points for descriptors and 0 for categories. No points weregiven for irrelevant replies (e.g., "I saw this in my book.")or for imprecise, all-inclusive answers based on function ("You canpick it up," or "You can share it".). In gen eral,all-inclusive answers were assigned 0 points if a more precise answerwas possible. Two observers independently recorded the children'sdescriptions verbatim ver��ba��tim?adj.Using exactly the same words; corresponding word for word: a verbatim report of the conversation.adv. for 15 baseline or probe sessions. Ten were basedon the CT children (7 from baseline and 3 from the post-training probesof different children) and 5 based on the NCT children's probes. Atthe end of each session, the observers independently scored for categoryand type of descriptors. Interobserver agreements were averaged, firstacross the 10 objects for each session and then across the 15 sessions.For category terms, the mean (median) percent agreement was 92% (96%)and ranged from 85% to 100%. For descriptors, it was 90% (93%) andranged from 83% to 100%. For same/not same (SINS) comparisons. The same 20 college students,shown each of the 6 object pairs, were asked to use the 16 categoryterms to generate a list of common and reasonable S/NS comparisons. Somecomparisons ended up with no entries for certain object pairs whereasothers, particularly those offering multiple descriptors (e.g., color,parts, what-for), had as many as 5. However, only the 3 most frequentcited comparisons per category were selected in order to reduce thecontribution of the multiple descriptors. Comparisons selected by morethan 75% of the students became the standard for judging thechildren's answers. Each report of an appropriate category term by a child was awarded1 point. Restatement RestatementA revision in a company's earlier financial statements.Notes:The need for restating financial figures can result from fraud, misrepresentation, or a simple clerical error. of the category term for each object in the pair inorder to produce parallel descriptions for sameness was consideredunnecessary. Thus, "The color of A is red and the color of B isred," and "The color of both are red," were consideredequivalent and either statement received 1 point. For reports of notsame, 1 point was given even though only a single contrasting noun oradjective was identified. That is, a correct contrast was, "Thecolor of A is red and this one (B) is not (red)." The DISTARLanguage programs as well as many scoring schemes for not-samecomparisons allow for the description of just a single object (Carnine,et. al., 1997; Dunn et. al., 1981; Terman & Merrill, 1973; &Weschler, 1989). Interobserver reliabilities, based upon independent observations ofdifferent children during 7 pretest or baseline sessions and 4subsequent S/NS sessions were as follows: mean (median) percentagreement for S and NS category terms were, respectively, 86% (100%) and87% (90%). For descriptors, comparable values for Sand NS were 87% (94%)and 84% (92%). Experimental Design and Training Sequence A multiple probe design (Tawney & Gast, 1984) across treatmentswas used to demonstrate that the number of category and descriptor termsmentioned was related to the number of category-descriptor statementstaught. All CT children received the same order of baseline, statementtraining, and post-training probe sessions. Figure 1 shows this orderfor pairs of children. Following a single baseline, KW and VW wereprobed for one session each time they mastered a set of statements,starting with learning 7, then 12 and finally after 16 categories. Theorder of statement training was staggered for the other 2 pairs ofchildren: MA and JS were 1 cycle behind the first pair of children andDT and TT were 2 cycles behind. After all training was discontinued dis��con��tin��ue?v. dis��con��tin��ued, dis��con��tin��u��ing, dis��con��tin��uesv.tr.1. To stop doing or providing (something); end or abandon: , 2 additional S/NS assessmentsessions were held. Finally, 4 to 9 weeks after training, a maintenancesession on single-object descriptions was held. JS left preschool afterlearning 13 statements, but returned for the S/NS and post-trainingmaintenance sessions. The 2 S/NS sessions were scheduled 3 to 5 daysapart. As a comparison group, the NCT children were probed forsingle-object descriptions and S/NS comparisons during the same timeframe as two CT children (KW and VW) were probed. Results Category Terms As shown in Figure 1, the number of category terms mentioned to theT and NT objects steadily rose over the baseline (or pretest assessment)levels for every CT child as an increasing number of category-descriptorstatements were taught. Moreover, successive improvements were evidencedonly after a selective set of statements had been taught. That is,improvements were based upon the experimental treatments and not upontemporal Having to do with time. Contrast with "spatial," which deals with space. or maturational mat��u��ra��tion?n.1. The process of becoming mature.2. Biologya. The processes by which gametes are formed, including the reduction of chromosomes in a germ cell from the diploid number to the haploid number factors. To get more reliable measures ofcategory term usage, the values for repeated baseline sessions in Figure1 were averaged, as were the values for those probe sessions that cameafter repeated training of the first 7 statements. The result of suchaveraging, which gives a clearer picture of the relationship between thenumber of categories taught and the number of categories mentioned, ispresented in Figure 2A. The number of category terms mentioned cameclosest to matching the number taught for the initial 7 statements,which included category terms from the nominal and extrinsic clusters.Thereafter, the number fell further off the mark as category membershipwas expanded to include the 4 intrinsic and 5 function clusters. Thenumber of category terms mentioned during the last probe session, after13 or 16 statements were taught, was still substantial; for both T andNT objects, the numbers were of the same magnitude, always greater than12 category terms, and for VW and TT it exceeded 14 terms. In contrast,use of category terms by the NCT children, as shown in Figure 3A, wasinfrequent in��fre��quent?adj.1. Not occurring regularly; occasional or rare: an infrequent guest.2. . The number mentioned throughout their probe sessionsaveraged about 1 category per object, a rate that resembled the lowvalues in the CT children's baseline data shown in Figures 1 and2A. The use of category terms by the NCT children never grew despite thepresentation of some category terms in the ongoing DISTAR Languageclasses and perhaps during everyday non-classroom interactions. Descriptors As depicted in Figure 2B, the mean number of descriptors mentionedby every CT child during baseline was also greatly elevated when thenumber of statements was progressively raised from 7 to 11 to 16 (or 13for JS). Moreover, the numbers given to T and NT objects wereessentially the same. After statements 12-16 were taught, the meannumber of descriptors per object (averaged over the 5 T plus the 5 NTobjects) was 18.2 (range, 13.2 to 22.9). During the fifth and last probesession of the NCT children (Figure 3B), however, the correspondingaverage was 4.4 (range, 3.0 to 6.6). Categories and Descriptors during the Maintenance Session Not shown is the finding that there was a sizeable increase in theCT children's use of category terms and descriptors from thebeginning to the end of this study, as reflected by baseline-maintenancesession comparisons. For the mean number of category terms mentioned perobject (based on 10 objects), the values for baseline and maintenancewere, respectively, 1.2 and 11.8, amounting almost to a 10-foldimprovement. For descriptors, the corresponding values were 4.3 and14.9, amounting to a 3-fold increase. Comparisons between the last probeand maintenance sessions revealed a small to modest decline in targetbehaviors. For category terms, mean scores fell from 13.7 to 11.8 termsper object, resulting in a net decrease of nearly 15%. For descriptors,the scores fell from 18.9 to 14.9 descriptors per object, resulting in anet decrease of nearly 20%. The intervening interval between the last probe and the maintenancesession was not deliberately varied. Four of 6 children all had a 4-weekbreak and the intervals for JS and MA were, respectively, 5 and 9 weeks.Thus, any decrement To subtract a number from another number. Decrementing a counter means to subtract 1 or some other number from its current value. in verbal behavior cannot be tied to apost-instruction time factor, even though MA's 9-week break was thelongest and her decline was highest; for category terms her reductionwas 21% and for descriptors it was 34%. Distribution of Descriptors by Clusters and by Categories The mean number of descriptors per object (based on 10 objects) foreach of the four dusters during the baseline and the post-training probesessions is given in Figure 4. Following the teaching of 7 statementsfrom the categories belonging to the nominal and extrinsic clusters, themean number of related descriptors was selectively and substantiallyenhanced. The same selective process occurred for descriptors from the 4categories in the intrinsic cluster, the overall effect again leading toan increase in the array of different descriptors. Descriptor diversityincreased still further as statements from the 5 categories in thefunction cluster were taught. High levels of descriptor usage weremaintained probably because of the cumulative review of statements. Thatis, when statements for categories in a new cluster were taught,previously taught clusters were reviewed. Although the values for the underlying categories in each clusterare not shown in Figure 4, the descriptors for each of the l6categoriesdid, in fact, rise. That is, once statements encompassing the nominalduster were taught, category-based descriptors referring to the name,class and parts of objects were mentioned more often, and similarchanges occurred for extrinsic-based descriptors referring to anobject's color, size, shape, and luster. The number per object washigher for categories featuring multiple descriptors (parts 2.1; color,2.3; and shape 1.8) and lower for categories with bipolar descriptors(the means for name, class, size, and luster were close to 1.0).Intrinsic-based categories led to means of 1 descriptor per object forcategories describing weight, texture, and density and 1.6 for what madeof. The number of function-based descriptors also rose, but the averagesfor some categories were lower: how used (0.6), who uses (0.6), location(0.6) and when used (0.4). Function-based descripto rs signifyingwhat-for were highest, averaging 2.3 per object. During the maintenance session, descriptor usage fell somewhat fromthe high values of the last probe session. The greatest decline stemmed stemmed?adj.1. Having the stems removed.2. Provided with a stem or a specific type of stem. Often used in combination: stemmed goblets; long-stemmed roses. from categories that included parts, shape, and the function categoriesof how-used, who-uses, location and when-used. Nevertheless, themaintenance record, relative to baseline, not only revealed a greaternumber of descriptors, but a fuller employment of categories from all 4clusters. Object descriptions during baseline were lower in number andconfined con��fine?v. con��fined, con��fin��ing, con��finesv.tr.1. To keep within bounds; restrict: Please confine your remarks to the issues at hand.See Synonyms at limit. to selective clusters. The dominant ones came from theextrinsic cluster, with color (1.4 per object) being the most frequentcategory, or from the function cluster, with what-for (1.3) being themost frequent. Not shown is the fact that NCT children also produced anarrow range of descriptor usage for each of the categories throughouteach of their probe sessions. Statement Order A procedure was developed to determine the extent to whichstatements followed the order taught. First, all possible random rankorderings that deviated from perfect rankings were calculated and thesums of the discrepancy DISCREPANCY. A difference between one thing and another, between one writing and another; a variance. (q.v.) 2. Discrepancies are material and immaterial. scores were found to approximate the normalcurve for each of the sets of 7, 11, and 16 statements. Means and SDswere then calculated for each of the 3 statement distributions. Giventhe sum of a particular child's discrepancy score, the probabilitythat it followed a random or chance occurrence could be evaluated by a zscore and exact p values. (Professor J. Neggars, personnelcommunication, May, 15, 1987.) For the z scores computed for thesentence order in each of the 25 post-training probe sessions shown inFigure 1,24 of them yielded p values less than .02 (range, .00 to .02),strongly suggesting that the CT children sequenced the statements in theorder they were taught. Same/Not Same Comparisons There were 3 evaluation sessions, designated as B, E2, an E3,during each of which the mean number of comparisons per child weredetermined. The B sessions constituted baseline or pretest performanceon the S/NS comparisons. The overall mean number of comparisons for theCT and the NCT Groups were highly similar, respectively, 2.3 and 2.4comparisons per child. The mean number of comparisons for the CTGroup's E2 sessions, held after completion of 13 or 16 taughtstatements, were now 3.0 comparisons per child. For the NCT Group'sE2 sessions, it was 2.6. Although the E1 to E2 gains were higher for theCT Group (+ 0.7) than for the NCT Group (+ 0.2), the CT children'simprovement can perhaps be cast as modest and less than expected giventhe array of useful category terms upon which comparisons could bebased. As an attempt to facilitate performance during the E3 sessions,held 1 week after E2, the examiner introduced different kinds of verbalprompts for different sets of children. These prompts were deliveredonly during the S/NS concrete-object pair comparisons. The wording ofthe prompts were similar to those previously used as part of statementreview training to indicate what general behaviors were shared bycategories in the same cluster. Two CT children, KW and JS, receivedonly extrinsic-oriented verbal prompts and were told, "Look atthese objects and figure out how they are the same" and, for the NScomparisons, "...figure out how they are not the same." For VWand TT, only intrinsic-based prompts were given; for the S and NScomparisons they were, respectively, "Hold and feel the objects andfigure out how they are the same and..."not the same." For MAand DT, only function-based prompts were given and they were,respectively, "Think about the use of the objects and figure outhow they are same... and.. . "not the same." In each case, theprompts summarized the general behaviors appropriate to certain clustersand the prompts never mentioned any category term. Two of thecluster-based prompts were also provided to NCT children during their E3sessions. The "Look at objects..." prompt was given to JM, AW,and BN and the "Hold and feel..." prompt to GP and NW. As withthe CT children, the prompts for the NCT children were mentioned onlyduring the S/NS concrete object-pair comparisons. The overall E3 session means for the CT Group were now 5.0comparisons per child, which reflected large absolute gains of 2.7 and2.0 over the B and E2 sessions. The overall E3 session means for the NCTGroup was 2.6, which was close to the E1 and E2 session means of 2.4 and2.6. Figure 5 gives a breakdown of performance by Group, type ofcomparison (S versus NS) and type of presentation (concrete objects,pictures and words). For the CT Group during E3 sessions, the number ofcontrasts was highest for the prompted concrete pairs, 5.4 for Scomparisons and 5.8 for NS comparisons. Corresponding scores forpictures were 4.9 and 5.3 and for words, 4.1 and 4.2. To determine those categories responsible for the E3 scores,categories mentioned in E3 were classified as "old" (orpreviously mentioned in E2) or as "new" (or never mentioned inE2). Considering all comparisons, 52% were repeats. Of the 48% newlymentioned comparisons by the CT Group, 65% came from category termsbelonging to one of three targeted clusters for which general promptswere given. For the NCT Group, the mean percentage of new comparisonsmentioned in the E3 session was 15% and, of those, only 12% wereassociated with the clusters prompted by the "Look at..." and"Hold and feel..." instructions for selected children. Discussion Teaching preschool children to make a series of category-descriptorstatements led to marked and sustained changes in the category anddescriptive terms that comprised every statement. Prior to statementtraining, the average baseline rate for the CT children was about 1category term and 4.3 descriptors per object. As a result of teaching 13to 16 statements, there was a 10-fold increase from baseline in the rateof category terms and a 3-fold increase in the rate of descriptors.These changes suggest that statement training can generate a high degreeof verbal productivity. That the descriptions pinpointed accurate anddetailed aspects of objects indicates a high degree of verbal precision.That the category and descriptive accounts of objects stemmed from thewidely represented categories in the nominal, extrinsic, intrinsic andfunction clusters reflects great diversity in expression. That theseverbal behaviors continued to be used at a fairly high level 4 to 9weeks after statement training suggests a reasonable degree ofpermanence Permanencelaw of the Medes and PersiansDarius’s execution ordinance; an immutable law. [O.T.: Daniel 6:8–9]leopard’s spotsthere always, as evilness with evil men. [O.T.: Jeremiah 13:23; Br. Lit. of verbal behavior. In addition, the NT objects were referredto with the same frequency and form as to the T objects and attests tothe generalization effects of statement training. Assuming that theselected category terms regularly apply to inanimate objects Inanimate Objectsabiologythe study of inanimate things.animatismthe assignment to inanimate objects, forces, and plants of personalities and wills, but not souls. — animatistic, adj. , thesegeneralized gen��er��al��izedadj.1. Involving an entire organ, as when an epileptic seizure involves all parts of the brain.2. Not specifically adapted to a particular environment or function; not specialized.3. outcomes should be possible with almost any untrained commonobject. Each or the aggregate of the 5 outcomes attained (verbalproductivity, precision, diversity, relative permanence andgeneralization) have been emphasized as relevant and useful languageintervention goals by theorists, researchers and practitioners alike(Carnine, et. al., 1997; Goldstein & Mousetis, 1989; Halpern. 1989;Hart & Risley, 1968, 1975; 1995; Hockett, 1958; Kauss &Glucksburg, 1977). Obviously, investigators should consider the use ofthese same measures in future attempts aimed at improving thedescriptive efforts of individuals especially those who areeducationally at-risk. Facilitation FacilitationThe process of providing a market for a security. Normally, this refers to bids and offers made for large blocks of securities, such as those traded by institutions. of statement learning was expected because within thestatements the descriptive aspects of objects were preceded by categoryterms intended to cue cue,n a stimulus that determines or may prompt the nature of a person's response.cuePsychology Any sensory stimulus that evokes a learned patterned response. See Conditioning. their expression. Also of some importance is thatthe wording of each sentence was made sufficiently similar to generatesameness in content structure (Becker, et. al., 1975; Engelmann &Carnine, 1991). To deal with the sizable siz��a��blealso size��a��ble ?adj.Of considerable size; fairly large.siza��ble��ness n. number of statements, anorganizational structure was developed that focused attention upon theformulation formulation/for��mu��la��tion/ (for?mu-la��shun) the act or product of formulating.American Law Institute Formulation of verbal behaviors that summarized aspects of the wholeobject and its parts, next upon certain external and internal structuralfeatures and finally upon details about object use. Other factorsleading perhaps to good retention were the cumulative review ofstatements that included the combination of previously and newly taughtstatements as well as the sequenced and special manner of holding andmanipulating objects during the teaching of descriptors for categoriesin the intrinsic cluster. Whether the separate present ation of categoryand descriptor terms is more effective than the combination of theseterms in statement training remains for future research, as does therole of other organizations variables. It is also unknown whether thepresent ordering of the 4 clusters is most effective because thesequence of cluster presentation was not systematically varied. Category terms thought to portray por��tray?tr.v. por��trayed, por��tray��ing, por��trays1. To depict or represent pictorially; make a picture of.2. To depict or describe in words.3. To represent dramatically, as on the stage. common inanimate objects weregiven primary consideration, though terms such as temperature, patternand quantity are also possibilities. Which categories to select dependupon the type of descriptors sought. Temperature, taste, odor odor(o��der) a volatile emanation perceived by the sense of smell. o��dorn.1. The property or quality of a thing that affects, stimulates, or is perceived by the sense of smell. andrelated categories would accommodate sensory-based descriptors, whereasdescriptions of animate objects might employ some of the categories usedherein and call for the adoption of others, such as types of coverings(e.g., skin, scales, fur), types of locomotion locomotionAny of various animal movements that result in progression from one place to another. Locomotion is classified as either appendicular (accomplished by special appendages) or axial (achieved by changing the body shape). , source of food and soforth. When single-word category terms do not suffice suf��fice?v. suf��ficed, suf��fic��ing, suf��fic��esv.intr.1. To meet present needs or requirements; be sufficient: These rations will suffice until next week. , category phrasesshould be used as was done in the function duster. The influence ofvariation and complexity of syntactical syn��tac��tic? or syn��tac��ti��caladj.Of, relating to, or conforming to the rules of syntax.[Greek suntaktikos, putting together, from suntaktos, constructed, from structures clearly needs to beassessed. Finally, disagreement over the choice of a term may arise.Some may object to density; yet, from a scientific perspective, manyobjects of high density are hard and those of low density, soft. Although statement training promoted single-object descriptors to asignificant extent, its initial effect on increasing S/NS comparisonsfor the CT children during their E2 sessions was only modest. It wasexpected that the process of selecting category terms for making S/NSjudgments would be carried out in a systematic and sequential manner.Compared to their pre-assessment baseline (B) session, the number of E2comparisons by the CT children was indeed greater, but their selectionof category and descriptive terms was done in a more or less randommanner. A likely reason for the nonuse of any sequential tactic was thatthe CT children were never taught any step by step organizationalstrategy for making comparisons. The S/NS comparisons were greatly elevated during the E3 sessionswhen verbal prompts were presented that summarized the general featuresof different clusters. That is, it was those cluster features thatemphasized how the objects looked, felt, or were used that served asverbal prompts. These same cluster-based prompts were used during theearlier period of statement review training when these same summaryprompts preceded and were associated with the identification of thespecific categories belonging to each cluster. There was thus thepossibility that the CT children, upon hearing these same prompts duringthe E3 sessions, would independently identify or review the categoriesimplied by the summary prompts. Some support for the childrenidentifying and using the categories to report S/NS comparisons is thatthe highest scores occurred for the exclusively prompted concrete objectpairs. That the rates also increased for the non-prompted picture andword pairs, albeit at lesser levels, suggests that the ch ildrenadditionally and independently extended the process of categoryidentification to these other object pairs. For the NCT children,however, the "Look at..." and "Hold and feel"prompts failed to create any improvement for both prompted andnon-prompted object pairs. Such failure makes sense given thatdiscriminative control of these prompts was never established for themfor any category or cluster. The absence of a training history withrespect to these same prompts also failed to impact single-objectdescriptions of preschoolers attending a Montessori program. (Weisberg,2002). On the average, category terms were mentioned one time for eachobject both during the NCT Group's probe sessions and during the CTGroup's baseline sessions. These rates seem somewhat low; yet, theywere nearly 10 times higher than the minuscule minusculeLowercase letters in calligraphy, in contrast to majuscule, or uppercase letters. Unlike majuscules, minuscules are not fully contained between two real or hypothetical lines; their stems can go above or below the line. rates of both preschooland K-age children who participated in Weisberg's (2002)longitudinal study longitudinal studya chronological study in epidemiology which attempts to establish a relationship between an antecedent cause and a subsequent effect. See also cohort study. of category development. At least one of threereasons may explain why children infrequently use category terms. First,in encouraging descriptions of objects by children, adults may favor theuse of descriptor terms and these often suffice for imparting im��part?tr.v. im��part��ed, im��part��ing, im��parts1. To grant a share of; bestow: impart a subtle flavor; impart some advice.2. someinformation. Second, other than using color, shape and parts, adults mayshy away from Verb 1. shy away from - avoid having to deal with some unpleasant task; "I shy away from this task"avoid - stay clear from; keep away from; keep out of the way of someone or something; "Her former friends now avoid her" teaching other terms as class, size, texture, etc, becausethey are too abstract and are viewed as an unnatural thing to do. Third,although parents and professionals, such as early-childhood teachers andexaminers of language assessment instruments, may mention these terms inthe questions and comments they address to children, the childrenthemselves are not encouraged to use them. The use of category terms in the adult's questions, but notalways in the children's answers, was largely true for the DISTARLanguage Program. In addition, the children were neither presented withconcrete objects nor asked to describe them in a sequence using completesentences that included category and related descriptor terms.Nevertheless, DISTAR Language presented several critical concepts andoffered a framework that permitted the procedures and parameters of thisinvestigation to be easily implemented. The large number of descriptorsthis program presented (see Table 3) provided the basis for thedefinitions of new category terms and for the establishment of newcategory-descriptor statements. Verbal production in this program isalso valued, with sentences about common information, relationships, andrules continually expressed by the children. Even though these sentencesdid not concur CONCUR - ["CONCUR, A Language for Continuous Concurrent Processes", R.M. Salter et al, Comp Langs 5(3):163-189 (1981)]. with those used herein, those that were taught wereprobably facilitated by the sentence-production history of the CTchildren. The CT children were seen individually for experimental controlpurposes, but the same training procedures can be easily implementedduring the regular DISTAR Language classes. Here the substantialpractice provided and the means to build verbal fluency through groupresponding (Carnine, et. al., 1997) should result in more efficient andproductive learning than that achieved by working with one child at atime. If taught during the language classes, the sequence of statementtraining could follow the same order as used in this study. Theadvantage of starting with the nominal cluster is that its three membercategories are introduced fairly early (mid-way through Language LevelI). Once nominal cluster statements are established, a set of concreteobjects could be introduced and each one expressed in terms of thesethree statements. The process could be repeated for the other 3 clustersas more concrete objects are included with each repetition REPETITION, construction of wills. A repetition takes place when the same testator, by the same testamentary instrument, gives to the same legatee legacies of equal amount and of the same kind; in such case the latter is considered a repetition of the former, and the legatee is entitled . Aside from the favorable fa��vor��a��ble?adj.1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds.2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis.3. effects that category learning had forobject descriptions and S/NS comparisons, its benefits can be extendedto other tasks. Knowledge of these terms is useful for thinking aboutand doing analogical- reasoning problems. In the advanced Language 2lessons, children solve analogies based on the relationship that twoobjects have with respect to their class, parts, materials, location andwhat used for; and other forms of categorical That which is unqualified or unconditional.A categorical imperative is a rule, command, or moral obligation that is absolutely and universally binding.Categorical is also used to describe programs limited to or designed for certain classes of people. relationships can bepresented as well. Category terms can also form the basis of a strategyfor making up definitions of objects. First, the object's class isidentified (e. g., plants, vehicles tools, etc) and then somethingunique about the object is specified, with these details based uponcategory terms that relate to parts, location, function and so forth.For example, "A flower is a plant that has a stem and a petal andgrows in the ground." Category terms are further useful forteaching question asking and answering skills. When these behaviors arecombined with the ability to express a wide assortment assortment/as��sort��ment/ (ah-sort��ment) the random distribution of nonhomologous chromosomes to daughter cells in metaphase of the first meiotic division. as��sort��mentn. of descriptorsalso cued by category terms, the outcome is likely to be helpful tochildren when they engage in extra-classroom activities such as Show andTell and a vari ant of the game Twenty Questions. In addition, categoryand descriptor terms are no doubt important for vocabulary building(Carnine, et. al., 1997), enhanced precision for more effectivereferential communication skills (Krauss & Glucksburg, 1977) andperhaps useful for making written forms of expression more descriptive. Some may claim that because category terms represent abstractconcepts and are not often said by young children, attempts to teachthese terms are considered developmentally inappropriate. In contrast isthe position taken here that teaching these terms are not onlydevelopmentally appropriate, but also instructionally appropriateactivities. Many children already verbalize some prerequisite pre��req��ui��site?adj.Required or necessary as a prior condition: Competence is prerequisite to promotion.n. descriptorterms and, if not, they can be taught them in order to createcategory-descriptor statements that can become functional for a largenumber of important cognitive and verbal skills. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] [FIGURE 5 OMITTED]Table 1Participant Demographics, Time in Preschool, and Language Lesson StatusChild Age Race Sex Months in(yr-mo) ProgramCategory-Trained ChildrenKW 6-1 W M 9VW 5-9 B F 26MA 7-1 B F 11JS 4-10 B M 22TT 4-4 W F 14DT 5-6 B M 13Noncategory-Trained ChildrenJM 5-4 B M 17GP 5-2 W F 26AW 6-1 B M 31NW 5-4 B F 9BN 5-5 B M 9 Language lesson at:Child(yr-mo) Start EndCategory-Trained ChildrenKW 160 220VW 305 320+MA 160 231JS 305 320+TT 220 250DT 220 280Noncategory-Trained ChildrenJM 305 320+GP 305 320+AW 305 320+NW 160 204BN 160 202Table 2Detailed Characteristics of the Ten Objects Used in the ObjectDescription ProbesObject DescriptionTrained (T) Objects1. Hammer 12 in long hammer with a metallic silver head and claws and a wooden, red handle with a black-rubber grip.2. Belt 36 in long black leather belt with a gold buckle and prong.3. Cereal box Medium-sized (7 1/2x 10 x 2 1/2in) multi-colored Raisin Bran cereal box. (Delchamps brand)4. Banana Middle-sized, black-stemmed banana, that is mostly yellow and, also green or brown depending upon its ripeness.5. Flower 10 in long plastic green-stemmed flower with purple silk petals and green leaves.Nontrained (NT) Objects6. Envelope 5 x 7 in white envelope with a blue lining.7. Thermos 10 in bright shiny-red, cylindrical-shaped thermos with a red handle, a silver metallic spout section, and a black bottom.8. Paintbrush 7 in long paintbrush with a brown handle, a silver metallic midsection, and black bristles.9. Telephone Large white and brass telephone with a cube-shaped base, black numerals, and an old-fashioned receiver.10. Table 26 x 18 in rectangle, 2 ft high, white table with gold specks on the surface.Table 3Identification of Clusters, Categories and Some DescriptorsClusters Category Cumulative per Cluster Order 1. Name 1Nominal 2. Class object is in 2 3. Parts 3 1. Color 4 2. Size 5Extrinsic 3. Shape 6 4. Luster (1) 7 1. Weight (1) 8 2. Texture (1) 9Intrinsic 3. Density (1) 10 4. Object is made of 11 1. What used for 12 2. How used 13Function 3. Who uses or used 14 4. Location or where 15 5. When used 16Clusters Descriptors see textNominal see text see text common colors in a box of 8 crayons big and small; also tall and shortExtrinsic triangle, circle, rectangle & square shiny & dull heavy & light smooth & roughIntrinsic hard & soft paper, plastic, cloth, wood, rubber, glass, metal, leather & concrete common uses, see text see textFunction see text see text see textFootnotes(1)Descriptions of objects and stimuli used to teach descriptorspertaining to luster, weight, texture and density are available uponrequest from the author.Table 4Statement and Bipolar Attribute TrainingStatement Training Procedure for Each Training Object1. Identifying the descriptor. For example, when presenting ahammer the teacher asked, "Tell me the name of this object."Positive feedback was given for correct identification. Eachincorrect response was corrected and the child questioned until"a hammer" was said.2. Teacher models a category-descriptor statement. The teachersaid a statement that identified the category and descriptorterms. For example, "I'll make a statement about the name of thisobject: "The name of this object is a hammer."3. Child says same statement. (Prompt given about the categoryterm.) The teacher said, "Make a statement about the name of thisobject." Child does so.4. Child says same statement. (No prompt given about the categoryterm.) The statement-initiating part in step 3 that identified acategory term, e.g., "the name of" was not provided. Instead, theteacher said, "Make a statement about this object."Bipolar Descriptor and Related Category Training and TestingProcedures1. Assessment of bipolar descriptor terms. One descriptor islabeled and the other is referred to as a non-labeled negativeexample of that descriptor as in, "Tell me if this object (orpart) is big or not big" (or "is smooth or not smooth").2. Feedback provided for correct or incorrect answers as in,"Yes, this object is big" (or, "No, this object is not smooth."3. Opposite descriptor labeled. "If it's not big, it's little.""If it's not smooth, it's rough."4. Assessment of labeled descriptors. "Tell me if it's big or little"(or "smooth or rough)"5. Category defined in terms of the just-taught descriptors. Forexample. "Texture tells how smooth or rough an object is."6. Testing of both the category term ("When you know about how smoothor rough an object is, you know about its _____?") and testing of thedescriptors. ("What does the texture of an object tell about?").Table 5Language Categories and Sample Descriptors for HammerCategories Sample Category-Descriptor Statements1. Name of object The name (of this object) is a hammer.2. Class name The class (this object is in) is tools3. Parts The parts (of this object) are a head and a handle.4. Color The color (of this object) is red.5. Size The size (of this object) is big.6. Shape The shape (of this object) is round and like a rod7. Luster The luster (of this object) is shiny.S. Weight The weight (of this object) is heavy.9. Density The density (of this object) is hard.10. Texture The texture (of this object) is smooth11. Composition/made of This object/part is made of metal.12. What used for The use (of this object) is for hammering in nails.13. How used The way to use this object is by holding the handle and banging the head on a nail.14. Who uses or used by The person who uses this object is a carpenter.15. Location The location (of/for this object) is a toolbox.16. When used The time to use this object is when you want to build something. References Alexander, P. A., Wilson, V. L., White, C. S., Fuqua, J. D., Clark,G. D., Wilson, A. F., & Kulikowich, J. M. 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Weisberg, P. (1994). Helping preschoolers from low-incomebackgrounds make substantial progress in reading through DirectInstruction. In R. Gardner III, D. M. Sainato, J. O. Cooper, T. E.Heron, W. L. Heward, J. W. Eshleman, & T. A. Grossi (Eds.), BehaviorAnalysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction(pp.115-129). Pacific Grove Pacific Grove,residential and resort city (1990 pop. 16,117), Monterey co., W central Calif., on a point where Monterey Bay meets the Pacific Ocean; inc. 1889. , CA: Brooks/Cole. Weisberg, P. (2002). Children's descriptive accounts of commonobjects: A developmental analysis of the number, variety and use ofhigher-order language categories. Unpublished manuscript. Zimmerman, I. L., Steiner, V. G., & Pond, R. E. (1992).Preschool language scale-3. New York: The Psychological Corporation. Author Note: Support from the University of Alabama's Officeof Sponsored Programs under the direction of Dr. Robert L. Wells isgratefully acknowledged. The author is indebted in��debt��ed?adj.Morally, socially, or legally obligated to another; beholden.[Middle English endetted, from Old French endette, past participle of endetter, to oblige to the dedicatedinstructional staff of the ECDCC, especially to Kathryn White, KarlaJohnson, and Valerie Grayson. A number of students served as teachers,observers, and coders; in this regard, Nan Owens, Susan Stevens, FrancesWorrell, and Bob Hill did outstanding work. The critical comments by Dr.Roberta S. Weisberg are also appreciated. Correspondence and requestsfor reprints should be sent to Dr. Paul Weisberg, Department ofPsychology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487-0348.