Factors influencing the design, establishment, administration, and governance of correctional education for females.

Factors influencing the design, establishment, administration, and governance of correctional education for females. Introduction There is a growing concern about the increase in the prisonpopulations and offenders being released into society (Lawrence, Mears,Dubin, & Travis, 2002). One in every thirty-two Americans passesthrough a correctional institution Noun 1. correctional institution - a penal institution maintained by the governmentdetention camp, detention home, detention house, house of detention - an institution where juvenile offenders can be held temporarily (usually under the supervision of a juvenile at some point in his or her life(Spangenburg, 2004). This includes a significant increase in femaleoffenders. Between 1990 and 2000 the number of women in prison rose 108%(Hardyman & Van Voorhis, 2004). Because of the increase in femaleoffender populations, correctional education for females has become acritical policy issue. Educational leaders, correctional leaders, andpoliticians are increasingly coming under pressure to provide moreprograms with a greater variety to female offenders (Bloom, Owen,Covington, & Raeder, 2003; Hardyman & Van Voorhis, 2004). Thesepressures have originated from various sources including female activistgroups, civil rights groups, litigation An action brought in court to enforce a particular right. The act or process of bringing a lawsuit in and of itself; a judicial contest; any dispute.When a person begins a civil lawsuit, the person enters into a process called litigation. , and the ever-growing presenceof women in correctional and educational leadership roles (Bloom et al.,2003; Sharp, 2003). Review of Literature To lay the ground work for this study a review of the currentliterature examined (a) the history of female correctional education;(b) program design including characteristics of female offenders andeffective programming components; and, (c) administration and governanceissues including collaboration and cooperation among leadership of theinstitutions and assessment. History of Female Correctional Education In 1873, the first reformatory for women opened in Indiana. Theprimary educational goal of this all female prison was to turn the womeninto "good housewives Housewives may refer to: Desperate Housewives, American television series Homemaker, American feminist phrase for a person whose prime occupation is to care for their family and/or home Stereotypes of Housewives, sociological concept " (Sharp, 2003). By 1990, the nation had71 female-only facilities; five years later, that number had jumped to104 (Sharp). Correctional programming for both women and men suffered tremendouscutbacks under the "get tough on crime" sentiments of the1980s and 1990s (Bazos & Hausman, 2003; Hardyman & Van Voorhis,2004; Harrison & Beck, 2002). Access to college education waslimited when prisoners were declared ineligible in��el��i��gi��ble?adj.1. Disqualified by law, rule, or provision: ineligible to run for office; ineligible for health benefits.2. for Pell Grants in 1994(Bloom et al., 2003). As of 1996, only 52% of correctional facilitiesfor women offered postsecondary education. Educational opportunitieswere further limited by the Higher Education Act of 1998, which deniedeligibility for students convicted of drug offenses (Bloom et al.).Although there was some progress in correctional education for femalesbetween the 1800s and 1900s, today many prisons still base theirtreatment of women on male offending patterns and programming (Sharp,2003) and programs are typically less available to female prisoners thanto male prisoners (Bloom et al.; Hardyman & Van Voorhis). Program Design and Establishment Many systems lack a written policy on the management andsupervision of female inmates (Bloom et al., 2003). Morash and Bynum(1999) have found that at the policy and system levels, the reality ofmanaging a women's institution is often ignored or dismissed. Theyreport that institutional level managers often feel that their superiorsfail to recognize gender distinctions. The lack of written policyaddressing gender differences between male and female offenders oftenput managers and line staff in a quandary because behavioral andsituational differences between female and male offenders cannot bedealt with if there is no specific policy governing the action (Bloom etal.). Although female offender populations continue to rise,correctional systems are ill equipped to address the security,programming and special needs presented by women offenders (Bloom etal.; Hardyman & Van Voorhis, 2004; Van Voorhis, Peiler, Presser,Spiropoulis, & Sutherland, 2001). Characteristics of Female Offenders Inmates need to be treated as adults and the individualized in��di��vid��u��al��ize?tr.v. in��di��vid��u��al��ized, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��ing, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��es1. To give individuality to.2. To consider or treat individually; particularize.3. teaching emphasis of adult education is consistent with the educationalneeds of inmate INMATE. One who dwells in a part of another's house, the latter dwelling, at the same time, in the said house. Kitch. 45, b; Com. Dig. Justices of the Peace, B 85; 1 B. & Cr. 578; 8 E. C. L. R. 153; 2 Dowl. & Ry. 743; 8 B. & Cr. 71; 15 E. C. L. R. 154; 2 Man. & Ry. 227; 9 B. & Cr. learners (Fox, 1987). Owen (1998) argued that it isessential to understand a woman's life prior to incarceration- herpathways to imprisonment- to appreciate her experiences while in prison.Recent research has established that women offenders differ from theirmale counterparts regarding personal histories and pathways to crime(Belknap, 2001; Bloom et al., 2003; Hardyman & Van Voorhis, 2004;Van Voorhis et al., 2001). These include educational, economical,cultural and self-conceptual pathways (Sharp, 2003). Women prisoners arelikely to be poor, undereducated, and single parents (Belknap, 1996;Bilchik & Peters, 1998; Bloom et al.). Owen (1998) found, approximately 44% of women incarcerated incarcerated/in��car��cer��at��ed/ (in-kahr��ser-at?ed) imprisoned; constricted; subjected to incarceration. in��car��cer��at��edadj.Confined or trapped, as a hernia. in stateprisons have not received a high school diploma A high school diploma is a diploma awarded for the completion of high school. In the United States and Canada, it is considered the minimum education required for government jobs and higher education. An equivalent is the GED. . Studies also show aclose connection between recidivism recidivism:see criminology. rates and the provision of suitableeducational services for the incarcerated and those leaving prison.According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Spangenburg, "those who participate in correctionaleducation programs have substantially lower rates of re-arrest,reconviction, and re-incarceration than people who leave prison withouteducational intervention" (p. 2). Female prisoners have had more difficult economic circumstancescompared to male prisoners (Bloom et al., 2003). Nearly 6 in 10 grew upin a single parent home (Belknap, 1996; Bilchik & Peters, 1998,Bloom et al.). Approximately 4 in 10 women were employed full-time priorto their arrest, compared to 6 in 10 men. Nearly 37% of female prisonershad incomes of less than $600 per month prior to their arrest, andalmost 30% of these women reported receiving some type of stateassistance (Bloom et al.; Sharp, 2003). These women have been verbally and physically abused most of theirlives and this is a major factor in women's incarceration Confinement in a jail or prison; imprisonment.Police officers and other law enforcement officers are authorized by federal, state, and local lawmakers to arrest and confine persons suspected of crimes. The judicial system is authorized to confine persons convicted of crimes. experiences (Bilchik & Peters, 1998; Bloom et al., 2003; Mageehon,2003; Van Voorhis et al., 2001). A national survey indicated womenprisoners have far higher rates of physical and sexual abuse than theirmale counterparts. The Bureau of Justice Statistics Noun 1. Bureau of Justice Statistics - the agency in the Department of Justice that is the primary source of criminal justice statistics for federal and local policy makersBJS (2001) reported thatwomen in prison are three times more likely to have a history of abusethan men in prison. More than 4 in 10 female adult inmates reported ahistory of physical or sexual abuse (Belknap, 1996; Bilchik &Peters). Sharp (2003) found 43% of the women surveyed indicated they hadbeen abused at least once in their life. Approximately one-quarter ofimprisoned im��pris��on?tr.v. im��pris��oned, im��pris��on��ing, im��pris��onsTo put in or as if in prison; confine.[Middle English emprisonen, from Old French emprisoner : en- women reported prior physical and/or sexual abuse by a familymember (Bloom et al.). A 1996 study by Jordan, Schlenger, Fairbank, andCadell, found that more than 80% of the women incarcerated in NorthCarolina's state prisons had been physically and/or sexuallyabused. Effective Programming Components A holistic analysis of programming for women offenders identifiescomponents that are necessary for effective programming (Belknap &Holsinger, 1998; Bilchik & Peters, 1998; Bloom et al., 2003;Hardyman & Van Voorhis, 2004; Sharp, 2003). Services and programmingshould be based on women's individual circumstances and needs.Programs and services should be gender sensitive and should provideparity with men's prisons, but be women-centered. Supervision andmanagement of women prisoners should be subject to periodic evaluationand ongoing supervision. Finally, staff should be carefully selected,trained and supervised and should be dedicated, caring, and qualified. One of the primary reasons an inmate enrolls in an educationprogram is to prepare for a job (Steurer et al., 2001). These programsshould emphasize the practical application of the skills gained afterthe inmate is released from prison (Lawrence et al., 2002; Steurer etal.). Women should receive instruction close enough to time of releasefor their skills to be usable on release and still fresh in thewomen's minds (Lawrence et al.; Sharp, 2003). Programming shouldproceed through a series of phases that take inmates logically from oneskill level to the next, building on the skills gained in each previousphase. These phases span an inmate's entire incarceration period,from assessment and diagnosis through work release and parole parole(pərōl`), in criminal law, release from prison of a convict before the expiration of his term on condition that his activities be restricted and that he report regularly to an officer. . There isa need for coordination and articulations among correctional facilitiesto ensure continuity of education as inmates transfer from one prison toanother (Sharp). An inmate may start a program of study at one facilityonly to find that the courses she needs to continue that program are notavailable at the facility to which she transfers (Lawrence et al.). There is a growing body of research, which documents the need forgender-specific programming (Bilchik & Peters, 1998; Bloom et al.,2003; Hardyman & Van Voorhis, 2004; Sharp, 2003; Van Voorhis et al.,2001). Gender-specific programming creates an environment that reflectsan understanding of the realities of women's lives and addressesthe issues of women (Bilchik & Peters; Bloom et al.).Gender-specific programming reinforces "femaleness" as apositive identity with inherent strengths. Merely isolating femaleoffenders by gender is not the same as comprehensive gender-specificprogramming. Solutions cannot be fragmented or offered on a piecemeal piecemealpatchy, e.g. necrosis of the liver in which groups of hepatocytes are separated by small groups of inflammatory cells and fine, fibrous septa following extension of the inflammatory process beyond the limiting plate. basis (Bilchik & Peters). Because of recent litigation for parity,the current legal environment is favorable fa��vor��a��ble?adj.1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds.2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis.3. toward gender-specificprogramming (Bloom et al.; Hardyman & Van Voorhis). Administration and Governance Education programs are among the best management tools incorrections because they keep inmates busy in a positive way(Spangenburg, 2004). The preferred management style recognizeswomen's greater concern with interpersonal relationships andexpression of emotions by including skills such as active listening Active listening is an intent to "listen for meaning", in which the listener checks with the speaker to see that a statement has been correctly heard and understood. The goal of active listening is to improve mutual understanding. ,patience in explaining rules and expectations, awareness of emotionaldynamics, and the capacity to respond firmly, fairly, and consistently.To achieve this style, administrators recommended being fair but strict,training staff to increase sensitivity to female inmate needs, hiringmore female staff, and involving inmates in decisions making andcarrying out some of the responsibilities (Bilchik & Peters, 1998;Bloom et al., 2003; Sharp, 2003). Collaboration and Cooperation Among Leadership of Institutions Differing mandates and goals (security vs. rehabilitation rehabilitation:see physical therapy. ) canexist between correction officials and educators. The drive of thecorrectional leader to provide safety and security of the institutionmay go against the educational leader's responsibility to educatethe inmate. This conflict may bring inconsistency in��con��sis��ten��cy?n. pl. in��con��sis��ten��cies1. The state or quality of being inconsistent.2. Something inconsistent: many inconsistencies in your proposal. , uncertainty, anddistrust to the relationship. These barriers can block lines ofcommunication "Lines of Communication" is an episode from the fourth season of the science-fiction television series Babylon 5. SynopsisFranklin and Marcus attempt to persuade the Mars resistance to assist Sheridan in opposing President Clark. , which may inhibit implementation and organizationallearning. Correctional and educational leaders must collaborate andcooperate to successfully provide education to offenders (Spangenburg,2004). Correctional Institution Leadership Lawrence et al. (2002) found in an era of prison expansion andconstraints on prison budgets, allocating space and resources forcorrectional education was not a top priority for correction managers.Such factors directly affect programming and are among those mostcommonly cited by correctional officials as barriers to effectiveprogramming. Prison administrators describe their top priority asmaintaining control of the prison environment to maximize the safety ofguards and prisoners (Amtmann & Evans, 2001; Jensen, 2003; Lawrenceet al.). Kerka (1995) found that education was secondary to security. Higher Education Institution Leadership According to Jurich, Casper, and Hull (2001), "Correctionaleducators are challenged to bring inquiry and learning to places mainlydesigned for custody and control ... and safety and security concernstake precedence over educational practices" (p. 23). Similarly,Bouchard (2001) asserts the institutional culture of a correctionalfacility is that of security. Higher education staff are expected toadhere to adhere toverb 1. follow, keep, maintain, respect, observe, be true, fulfil, obey, heed, keep to, abide by, be loyal, mind, be constant, be faithful2. all the rules and security procedures of the Department ofCorrections and the individual facilities they work in which results ineducational staff being responsible to two masters. Still, educationalstaff is held responsible above all else for individual educationoutcomes (Jensen, 2003). Differing mandates and divergent di��ver��gent?adj.1. Drawing apart from a common point; diverging.2. Departing from convention.3. Differing from another: a divergent opinion.4. areas of focus produce significantpotential for inconsistency, confusion and disagreement (Burke &Keeley, 2002). Formal contractual agreements between correctional andeducational institutions are seriously needed (Amtmann & Evans,2001; Grasty, 1988; Jensen, 2003). Communication, coordination, andcollaborative problem solving Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) is a behavior management approach developed for children with social, emotional, and behavioral challenges. The CPS approach views behavioral challenges as a form of learning disability and seeks to correct behavior through cognitive intervention. will result in the educational andcorrectional leadership experiencing personal ownership of the vision,mission, and goals of the organization. The collaboration should producea win-win situation (Amtmann & Evans). The determination to overcomeestablished policies that produced inefficiencies and de-optimized thehuman potential of both organizations will set the collaboration ofcorrectional and educational leadership on the road to positiveorganizational alignment. The development of cross-functional focusteams with persons representing all departments will fosterorganizational synergy through increasing communication andcollaboration. Pooling of information across functions is theunderpinning un��der��pin��ning?n.1. Material or masonry used to support a structure, such as a wall.2. A support or foundation. Often used in the plural.3. Informal The human legs. Often used in the plural. of organizational learning. The quality of organizationwill be improved through cooperative efforts by both educational andcorrectional leadership. Territoriality TerritorialityBehavior patterns in which an animal actively defends a space or some other resource. One major advantage of territoriality is that it gives the territory holder exclusive access to the defended resource, which is generally associated with and sentimentalism sen��ti��men��tal��ism?n.1. A predilection for the sentimental.2. An idea or expression marked by excessive sentiment.sen will bereplaced with personal productivity, professional achievement, andultimately, organizational synergy (Jensen, 2003). Assessment Women's needs differ from those of men but these needs areseldom considered by institutional needs assessment systems (Bloom etal., 2003). According to Van Voorhis et al. (2001), there are very fewvalidation studies involving women offenders. Although it has long beenconsidered unethical unethicalsaid of conduct not conforming with professional ethics. to apply any assessment to a population other thanthe one used for its construction and validation, failure to validatecorrectional assessments to specific populations is a commonobservation. Studies cannot be conducted on men and generalized to women(Van Voorhis et al.). Without careful program design, implementation, and monitoring itis impossible to know whether or how programs are effective. Researchersneed to be involved at all stages of development, relying on bothprocess and outcome evaluations to improve program design andoperations. This involvement ensures ineffective programs are eliminatedor significantly changed (Lawrence et al., 2002). Methodology The purpose of this study was to investigate factors influencingthe organizational design, establishment, administration, and governanceof correctional education for females. A case study analysis approachwas used to gather and analyze data, and provide a detailed account offemale correctional education at a single institution. The goal was toprovide an in depth analysis of one institution. This particularfacility was selected because it: (a) offered correctional educationthrough a community college/university, (b) was a minimum-security unit,(c) had a population range between 350 and 550, and (d) was locatedwithin the geographic area of North Carolina North Carolina,state in the SE United States. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (E), South Carolina and Georgia (S), Tennessee (W), and Virginia (N).Facts and FiguresArea, 52,586 sq mi (136,198 sq km). Pop. where the researchers werelocated. Five questions were used to frame this study: (1) Do highereducational leaders and correctional leaders collaborate on the design,establishment, administration and governance of correctional educationfor females and if so, how?; (2) What factors influence the selection ofservices, targeted populations, and desired outcomes?; (3) Who performsthe research on correctional education theory and practice and how isthe research used?; (4) What human, physical, financial and otherresources are needed for the design, establishment, and administrationof correctional education and how are these resources acquired?; and (5)How is correctional education assessed and how is this information used? Data Collection Methods Data were collected from the participating site throughsemi-structured interviews, document analysis, and site observations.Interviews were conducted with the administrators and staff of the NorthCarolina Community College System The North Carolina Community College System is a statewide network of fifty-eight (58) public community colleges. Each college has a distinct governance system and policies. In total, the system enrolls over 800,000 students. (NCCCS NCCCS North Carolina Community College SystemNCCCS Northern California Coastal Circulation Study ) and the North CarolinaDepartment of Correction (NCDOC NCDOC Navy Cyber Defense Operations Command (US DoD; formerly NAVCIRT)NCDOC North Carolina Department of Corrections ). Because of the nature of the agreementbetween the community college system and the Department of Correction,corresponding administrators and staff from both departments at similarstate and local levels were selected to be interviewed. Content analysiswas performed by comparing and contrasting relevant data points andidentifying emergent emergent/emer��gent/ (e-mer��jent)1. coming out from a cavity or other part.2. pertaining to an emergency.emergent1. coming out from a cavity or other part.2. coming on suddenly. themes. These themes were then categorized cat��e��go��rize?tr.v. cat��e��go��rized, cat��e��go��riz��ing, cat��e��go��riz��esTo put into a category or categories; classify.cat into sixcategories. Results and Recommendations The results of this study have been grouped into six categories:(a) correctional education history, background, and establishment, (b)research and literature, (c) organizational structure, culture, andgovernance, (d) collaboration between leadership, (e) resources andoperations, and (f) expectations, outcomes, assessment, and the futureof correctional education for females. Recommendations for each categoryare based on the data collected and information from the literaturereview. Correctional Education History, Background, and Establishment There was no comprehensive written history on correctionaleducation or specifically on correctional education for females. Theparticipants did not have any information on correctional educationhistory as a whole or specifically on female offenders. They did notknow which individuals, organizations, or resources played key roles inthe founding of correctional education in North Carolina or whatobstacles were encountered in establishing the correctional educationprogram at the correctional facility or college where this study wasconducted. There was no formal documentation of the history. A comprehensive history of correctional education including asection on female offender education might improve participantsunderstanding of correctional education. It is important to recognizethe process of how correctional education began and how the partnershipbetween the community college system and the Department of Correctionwas formed. Not only will people who are directly involved be betterinformed, but also documentation of this history will help the generalpublic understand correctional education. State support was essential in overcoming barriers to correctionaleducation. The participants agreed that the North Carolina governmenthad made a strong commitment to post secondary correctional education.Legislation passed in 1987, specifically House Bill 50, was the key toforming the collaboration between the North Carolina Community CollegeSystem and the Department of Corrections. Without this legislation, theparticipants recognized that the partnership would not have been formed.According to the vice president of the state level NCCCS, "If youdidn't have this partnership, colleges wouldn't be offeringfree education to prisons because they would have no way to recoup recoupTo sell an asset at a price sufficient to recover the original outlay or to offset a previous loss. anymoney." This study also showed that since 1987 there has been acontinuation of laws passed which the participants felt helped improvecorrectional education. A task force to lobby for correctional education may increaselegislative support. Lobbying legislators will help to inform them aboutthe issues surrounding correctional education. It would be important forthe task force to collect the necessary data, such as programeffectiveness, to educate the legislation on the benefits ofcorrectional education. In addition, the task force might conduct aformal public awareness campaign on the benefits of correctionaleducation. Bazos and Hausman (2003) found that one million dollars spenton correctional education prevented 640 crimes, while that same moneyinvested in incarceration alone prevented 350. Correctional Education Research and Literature There is an inadequate amount of correctional education researchand literature. According to Van Voorhis et al. (2001), there are veryfew validation studies involving women offenders. Researchers may needto be involved at all stages of development, relying on both process andoutcome evaluations to improve program design and operations (Lawrenceet al., 2002). This study confirms the lack of research utilized incorrectional education, especially on female offender education. All ofthe participants in the study agreed that currently there was noresearch being conducted by the NCCCS or the DOC on female offenders. The participants also confirmed that most correctional educationresearch was focused on recidivism. One participant said "It ishard dealing with the public and the legislature when you cannot pointto specific studies that say how well we are doing." Enhanced correctional education may be accomplished by increasingresearch and production of literature. Research studies in the followingareas are suggested: female offenders, gender-specific programming,descriptive studies, outcomes, best practices, employability andrecidivism. Organizational Structure, Culture and Leadership There was no comprehensive organizational structure forcorrectional education. This study found there were inconsistencies ofjob titles and responsibilities among community college and Departmentof Correction staff. The community college staff was unsure of whoreally was responsible for prison education at the community college.Because positions are not mandated at all colleges, community collegestaff had varying responsibilities based on the size of the institution.According to the state educational consultant for the NCCCS, "thereis some question sometimes about who is in charge. Where does the buckreally stop"? In general, there was not a joint organizationalstructure showing the relationship between the two agencies. An item ofconcern was that community college instructors had two differentsupervisors, one at the community college and one at the correctionalfacility. Jensen's (2003) study addressed the challenge of workingfor two different supervisors in the correctional setting. Highereducation staff was expected to adhere to all the rules and securityprocedures of the Department of Corrections and of the individual workfacilities which resulted in educational staff being responsible to twosupervisors. The local North Carolina Community College System basicskill coordinator stated: You're hired by the college, but in order to do your job for the college there has to be a certain relationship between you and the Department of Corrections. Each one of these organizations presents unique challenges that we must deal with. So I would say that as far as the administration is concerned, yes, definitely, I'm responsible for answering to two different administrations. Developing a comprehensive organizational structure for thecommunity college system and the Department of Correction defining theroles and responsibilities of community college instructors in thecorrectional facility would be beneficial. This structure should definethe roles and responsibilities of each staff member and specify theirimmediate supervisor. Participants in this study felt that it was alsoimportant to assign one person at each level to be solely in charge ofcorrectional education. There was an inconsistency in the administration of policies andprocedures Policies and Procedures are a set of documents that describe an organization's policies for operation and the procedures necessary to fulfill the policies. They are often initiated because of some external requirement, such as environmental compliance or other governmental . There were discrepancies between what the documents, such asthe cooperative agreement and standard operating procedures, describedand actual practices. The cooperative agreement stated the roles andresponsibilities of the North Carolina Community College System and theDepartment of Correction, yet this study identified there was confusionamong the participants about roles and responsibilities. There werestandard operating procedures but these were not being met. Theinterpretation of policy and procedures also varied among levels. Training all individuals in policy and procedures may improveconsistency of administration. Also updating documents and manuals,making sure the participants are in compliance, and issuing acomprehensive manual may improve consistency of administration. Themanual should include: (a) the history of correctional education fromthe community college side and the Department of Correction side, (b)important legislation including bills, general statutes, and codes, (c)important documents such as a cooperative agreement, joint feasibilityforms, and joint approval forms, (d) joint organizational structure withdefined roles and responsibilities, (e) policies and procedures fromboth the community college and the Department of Correction, and (f) anyother essential information to the collaboration. This manual should begiven to all personnel at the community college and the Department ofCorrection as well as distributed to new employees. Community college instructors were not properly prepared to becorrectional education instructors. The study found that there were nojoint pre-service or in-service training on correctional education forinstructors. In a prison, security of the inmate was a top priority andin some respects the faculty was a member of the security team. Facultyin this study were often unprepared for such responsibilities and thestress that they encountered in a prison environment and weresusceptible to burnout BurnoutDepletion of a tax shelter's benefits. In the context of mortgage backed securities it refers to the percentage of the pool that has prepaid their mortgage. . A training and a mentoring program may properly prepare communitycollege instructors to be correctional educators. Jensen (2003) statedthat correctional and educational leaders must provide correctionaltraining to higher education staff. The training should consist of acomprehensive multidisciplinary pre-service course as well an annualin-service course. There may be a need for a specific orientation andpre-service training detailed to community college instructors atcorrectional facilities. In addition, joint in-service training providedby the North Carolina Community College System and the Department ofCorrection and further professional development in adult educationspecifically for inmates may be needed. This study found thatinstructors were sometimes intimidated in��tim��i��date?tr.v. in��tim��i��dat��ed, in��tim��i��dat��ing, in��tim��i��dates1. To make timid; fill with fear.2. To coerce or inhibit by or as if by threats. by correctional staff. Thereforetraining may incorporate information on instructor intimidation. It mayalso provide the instructors with an understanding of the prisonenvironment and appropriate contact personnel. Instructors could beprovided with a comprehensive manual with information from Department ofCorrection and community college system and a mentor to help them adjustto the prison environment. Correctional education programs should reflect employmentopportunities for inmates upon release. Participants felt thatcorrectional educational programs should prepare inmates for employmentupon release. Participants conveyed that inmates were often unpreparedto join the workforce. A participant from the local NCCCS stated"It's well worth the cost if you are reducing the likelihoodof that person to return to a correctional center once a person has beenreleased. If you can cut down on repeat offenders, your money as beenwell spent." Programs need to be altered to better fit the needs ofboth the incarcerated offender and the business community (Merriam &Cunningham, 1989). Conducting research on the employment of ex-offenders may help toensure that correctional educational programs meet the employment needsof inmates upon release. A feasibility form developed by the NorthCarolina Community College System and the North Carolina Department ofCorrection was used to assess inmate employability in this study. There was a lack of a joint mission, vision, goals, and objectivesfor the Department of Correction and the Community College System.According to Jensen (2003), when instructors do not receive support fromcorrectional staff, then they do not feel they were an integral part ofa common group. The responsibility of the correctional leader tomaintain safety and security may conflict with the educationalleader's responsibility to educate the inmate. This conflict mayresult in inconsistency and uncertainty. These barriers may impede im��pede?tr.v. im��ped��ed, im��ped��ing, im��pedesTo retard or obstruct the progress of. See Synonyms at hinder1.[Latin imped linesof communication, which may inhibit implementation of correctionaleducation programs. Correctional and educational leaders mustcollaborate and cooperate to successfully provide education to offenders(Spangenburg, 2004). This study found challenges to having sharedvalues, beliefs, and practices, because the missions of the two agencieswere greatly different. The mission of the North Carolina CommunityCollege System was educational integrity while the mission of Departmentof Correction was security. All participants agreed that there were nojointly defined mission, vision, goals, and objectives for correctionaleducation between the two agencies and that female correctionaleducation was not specifically addressed. Establishment of overall correctional education mission, vision,goals, and objectives for the two agencies may bring organizationalcohesion cohesion:see adhesion and cohesion. Cohesion (physics)The tendency of atoms or molecules to coalesce into extended condensed states. This tendency is practically universal. . This should include specifically addressing femalecorrectional education. Communication, coordination, and collaborativeproblem solving may result in the educational and correctionalleadership experiencing personal ownership of the vision, mission, andgoals of the organization. A classification system was beneficial in addressing the continuityof education as inmates transfer from one facility to another whichoften resulted in them not completing programs. According to Sharp(2003), there was a need for coordination and articulations amongcorrectional facilities to ensure continuity of education as inmatestransfer from one prison to another. The development of a matrixclassification system, which identified educational programs offered ineach of the prisons, helped to address inmate movement. Continued use of the classification system to monitor inmatemovement is recommended. The matrix classification system used by theNorth Carolina Community College System and the NC Department ofCorrection determines the appropriate level of courses that may beoffered at a facility. It stipulates which types of programs may beoffered based on the custody level and the inmate length-of-stay at eachfacility. A mandatory education program addressed the needs of the inmateswith the lowest levels of education. Studies show that imprisonedindividuals are disproportionately and increasingly undereducated, withlow skills in the basics of reading, writing, math and oralcommunication (Bloom et al., 2003; Hardyman & Van Voorhis, 2004;Lawrence et al., 2002; Spangenburg, 2004). North Carolina has severalliteracy laws requiring Department of Corrections to provide educationfor inmates with a low level of literacy. More emphasis has been placedon serving inmates with the low literacy levels because this group hasthe highest rate of recidivism (Spangenburg). Efforts should be made to continue encouragement of legislationrequiring mandatory education for inmates with low literacy levels.Currently, mandatory education requires inmates below a certain readinglevel to attend ABE/GED courses for 120 days. North Carolina does not specifically focus on female correctionaleducation. There was no evidence of gender-specific programming. Thebehaviors, risk factors, issues and concerns of women, and thedifferences in the behavior and needs of female and male offenders werenot considered in program development and implementation, policies andoperational practices. Most participants stated that no informationabout women offenders was collected, coded, monitored, or analyzed. Theyalso indicated that there were no regional coordinated planning effortsin place to study the needs of female offenders and there was noresearch on female correctional education. All participants agreed thatthere was no specific funding for females, no one specifically assignedto lobby for women and women's programs, and no agency levelpositions to manage women's services. Bloom et al. (2003) and Hardyman and Van Voorhis (2004) found thatstaff training traditionally ignored female offender issues. None of thelevels of the North Carolina Community College System or the Departmentof Correction provided training on woman offenders. This study found noevidence of training to prepare staff for the importance ofrelationships in the lives of women offenders: on the nature ofwomen's relational context, boundaries, limit setting,communication, and child-related issues; nor training on gender-specificprogramming. All the participants felt that this type of training wouldbe beneficial to program effectiveness. There was the opinion from the state level North Carolina CommunityCollege System and the Department of Correction that because the inmateswere separated by gender into different facilities, then that wouldconstitute gender-specific programming. One administrator stated that"The units are going to deal with the population they have. As faras gender-specific [programming] that would be handled by them [theinmates] being at a female facility versus a male facility".According to Bilchik and Peters (1998), merely isolating femaleoffenders by gender was not the same as comprehensive gender-specificprogramming. All the administrators in the study agreed that there wasno gender-specific programming. Some of the participants felt that itwas important to provide the same educational opportunities regardlessof gender. Conducting research on female inmates may improve correctionaleducation for females. According to Bilchik and Peters (1998),programming should be based on women's individual circumstances andneeds. They also found that women who commit crimes have been aninvisible minority whose needs, histories, and issues have gone largelyundocumented. It was important to understand the population that wasbeing served. Some of the administrators in this study felt that femaleinmates have special issues that are different from the issuessurrounding the male inmate population. Instructors were perceived as sole correctional education mentors.The community college instructors were perceived as mentors for theirinmate students. The local NCCCS assistant basic skillscoordinator/instructor stated that "as far as the educational staffis concerned a lot of times we're looked upon as mentors in thatyou counsel students from time to time." While correctionaleducation students have little opportunity or capacity for becomingpeers with their mentors, those who participate in higher education dobecome more self-reliant, autonomous, and independent as students(Lawrence, 1994). Providing training to instructors on mentorship may improve thementor--protege relationship between the instructor and inmate.According to Lawrence (1994), the theory and goals of correctionaleducation and of mentorship seem quite compatible, and correctionaleducators are encouraged to think of themselves as mentors in thetraditional sense of the term. With the proper training, instructors mayplay an essential role in the inmates' successful reintegration reintegration/re��in��te��gra��tion/ (-in-te-gra��shun)1. biological integration after a state of disruption.2. restoration of harmonious mental function after disintegration of the personality in mental illness. into society. The instructor will be able to provide guidance that iscrucial to forming positive, constructive lifestyles on the outside. Collaboration between the North Carolina Community College Systemand the Department of Corrections Collaboration between agencies was important to the success ofcorrectional education. The collaboration between the North CarolinaCommunity College System and the Department of Correction had improvedcorrectional education. The participants stated the community collegeprogram was much better than the previous system which utilizedDepartment of Correction instructors to teach correctional education. The development of collaborations between correctional andeducational agencies may be beneficial to the success of correctionaleducation. According to the state Department of Correction'sdirector of educational services, "The United States Department ofEducation The United States Department of Education (also referred to as ED, for Education Department) is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government. Created by the Department of Education Organization Act (Public Law 96-88), it began operating in 1980. was planning a visit to North Carolina, to explore therelationship between the North Carolina Community College System and theDepartment of Correction so they can use us as a model for otherstates." The development of cooperative agreements was essential tothe success of correctional education. Amtmann and Evans (2001) andJensen (2003) found formal contractual agreements between correctionaland educational institutions were seriously needed. In this case,although there was not a formal agreement, there was a cooperativeagreement developed by a joint committee, which specified the roles andresponsibilities of the two agencies. However, the education consultant of the state NCCCS reported that"It's probably likely that the majority, if not up to 99% ofthe folks that are teaching [in prisons] don't even know there is acooperative agreement." Cooperative agreements were needed toestablish an understanding of the responsibilities of the two agenciescollaborating to provide correctional education. The agreement shouldaddress: (a) a definition of correctional education, (b) the jointapplication and approval process, (c) roles and responsibilities, (d)inmate assignment and referrals, (e) data reporting, and (f) funding. There was a lack of communication between agencies. The NorthCarolina Community College System and the Department of Correction hadcommunication difficulties as evident by general misinformation mis��in��form?tr.v. mis��in��formed, mis��in��form��ing, mis��in��formsTo provide with incorrect information.mis or thelack of information through the organizations. The participants at alllevels were not knowledgeable about how the collaboration was formed andthe local level participants lacked knowledge about the interagencycommittee. The staff at the community college did not know that theywere the contact person for correctional education. The participants atboth the community college and department of correction experiencedproblems with the interpretation of policies and practices and wereconfused about funding issues. The improvement of communication processes may be beneficial to thecollaboration among agencies. Communication might be improved byreviewing the organizational structures and determining the lines ofcommunication, and allowing input from members of both organizations. The joint committee/task force that oversaw o��ver��saw?v.Past tense of oversee. the collaboration amongagencies improved the success of correctional education working. Coranth(1986) noted the occurrence of interpersonal and interagency conflictsat all levels, usually because of overlapping or disputed lines ofresponsibility. In response, Coranth recommended that an oversightagency be established to provide statewide coordination and establishoverarching o��ver��arch��ing?adj.1. Forming an arch overhead or above: overarching branches.2. Extending over or throughout: "I am not sure whether the missing ingredient . . . policies. This study found both agencies agreed that thejoint committee, the Interagency Committee on Correctional Education,allowed them to formally examine the correctional education. Continuation of the joint oversight committee may improvecoordination of correctional education. The Interagency Committee onCorrectional Education has representatives from both the Department ofCorrection and the North Carolina Community College System office. Thegroup periodically reviews course offerings in the prisons and discussesany barriers that may have existed, whether from the communitycollege's perspective or the Department of Correction. Thecommittee also stated that they discussed joint-legislative initiatives.The joint oversight committee was a communication method where theagencies formally met to examine correctional education. Resources and Operations There was a considerable gap between programming needs andresources. Lawrence et al. (2002) found in an era of prison expansionand constraints on prison budgets, allocating space and resources forcorrectional education was not a top priority for correction managers.Such factors directly affect programming and are among those mostcommonly cited by correctional officials as barriers to effectiveprogramming. This study's findings agreed with Lawrence et al.There was a great need for improved physical facilities andtechnological resources. The major concerns with technology were theneed to update equipment, continuing problems with inmates having accessto the Internet, and simulating technology that will help inmatesfunction when they are released from prison. Administrators may need to request funds for resources to meetprogramming needs and participate in grant writing. During periods ofbudget constraints, correctional education administrators need to beable to prove the effectiveness of correctional education in order tosecure funding. Expectations, Outcomes, Assessment and the Future There was not a comprehensive evaluation of correctional educationprograms. Lawrence et al. (2002) found there was a need for systematicassessment in correctional education and a need to express theoreticalfoundations for anticipated impacts of programs and this studyconcurred. The participants wanted a comprehensive evaluation on eachinmate including demographic information and interests. The participantsalso wanted data pertaining per��tain?intr.v. per��tained, per��tain��ing, per��tains1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident.2. to inmate release and employability afterrelease. The participants thought that it was important to document theeffectiveness of the correctional education programs. The development and use of evaluation instruments may help toimprove correctional education programs. Establishing benchmarks andcollecting data on inmates and correctional education activities mayhelp in program development. Program design did not include the analysis of inmate backgroundsand needs or feedback from inmates. One participant stated: I think alot of times we may miss out when we don't ask the inmates or thestudents what they feel is necessary. I think it's easier to makedecisions without having their input, but I think their input is neededand is necessary I think more could be done to include them. Assessment of inmate needs and inmate feedback when designingprograms may improve programming for inmates. In developing andimplementing correctional education, Bilchik and Peters (1998), Bloom etal. (2003), and Sharp (2003) found that inmates should be involved inthe process. Programs may be shaped to include inmates' broaderproblems. Conclusion As with most organizations, communications is crucial.Communication needs to be open between agencies and all levels ofadministration. When forming collaborations, it is crucial to havecooperative agreements that define what each organization's rolesand responsibilities will be within the collaboration. Joint oversightcommittees are necessary in order to have input from both sides of thecollaboration when designing, establishing, administrating and governingcorrectional educational programs. An organizational structure that defines the roles andresponsibilities of all the participants in correctional education andthe development of a joint mission, vision, goals and objectives willbring about organizational synergy. Finally, research in the areas ofinmate background, needs and employability after release; technology;evaluation and outcomes; and best practices may improve success ofcorrectional educational programs. Training on the uniquecharacteristics of inmates, policy and procedures, and mentorship shouldalso lend itself to success. References Amtmann, J., & Evans, R. (2001). Decision-making processes ofcorrectional and educational leaders. Corrections Compendium com��pen��di��um?n. pl. com��pen��di��ums or com��pen��di��a1. A short, complete summary; an abstract.2. A list or collection of various items. , 26(12),1-11. Bazos, A., & Hausman, J. (2003). Correctional education as acrime control program. UCLA UCLA University of California at Los AngelesUCLA University Center for Learning Assistance (Illinois State University)UCLA University of Carrollton, TX and Lower Addison, TX School of Public Policy and Social Research. Belknap, J., & Holsinger, K. (1998). An overview of delinquentgirls: How theory and practice have failed and the need for innovativechanges. In R. Zaplin (Ed.), Female crime and delinquency: Criticalperspectives and effective interventions. 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Biographical Sketches-- JOHNICA ELLIS, Ed.D., is an instructor at Edgecombe CommunityCollege and has eleven years of experience teaching female offenders inthe North Carolina correctional system. Her research interests includecorrectional education, professional development, and programevaluation Program evaluation is a formalized approach to studying and assessing projects, policies and program and determining if they 'work'. Program evaluation is used in government and the private sector and it's taught in numerous universities. . CHERYL MCFADDEN, Ed.D., is an associate professor in the Departmentof Educational Leadership at East Carolina University East Carolina University is a public, coeducational, intensive research university located in Greenville, North Carolina, United States. Named East Carolina University by statue and commonly known as ECU or East Carolina . Her researchinterests include program evaluation, curriculum development, andleadership induction. SUSAN COLARIC, Ph.D., is the Director of Instructional Technology There are two types of instructional technology: those with a systems approach, and those focusing on sensory technologies.The definition of instructional technology prepared by the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology at St. Leo St. Leo may refer to: St. Leo, Florida St. Leo, Minnesota St. Leo, Kansas Saint Leo University St. Leo Abbey Historic District St. University. Her research interests include professionaldevelopment and alternative delivery methods for non-traditionalpopulations.