A geochemical investigation of the origin of Rouletted and other related South Asian fine wares.

A geochemical investigation of the origin of Rouletted and other related South Asian fine wares. Introduction The origin and distribution of Rouletted ware (Figure 1) andrelated fine wares (Sri Lankan Grey ware and Arikamedu Type 10) havebeen debated since Syme (1955) and Lal (1960) reviewed Wheeler'spublications of Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontiers (Wheeler 1954) andEarly India and Pakistan (Wheeler 1959). In 1985, Silva reported thepresence of Rouletted ware at Mantai in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka(srē läng`kə)[Sinhalese,=resplendent land], formerly Ceylon,ancient Taprobane, officially Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, island republic (2005 est. pop. , and showed theimportance of this site for regional and international trade (Silva1985: 46). In recent years, the problem has been illuminated throughchemical examination of the pottery fabric. Reporting the discovery ofRouletted ware and Arikamedu Type 10 sherds from Bali and Indonesia,Ardika & Bellwood (1991: 224) proposed a geological source in India.Subsequently, Ardika et al. (1997) indicated a'trading/warehousing' activity area at Sembiran and also theidentification of a number of sherds of assumed South Asian origin,including Arikamedu Type 10 and Arikamedu Type 18. Roberta Tomber'sresearch at Berenike, Egypt, highlighted the presence of Rouletted wareand Arikamedu Type 10, suggesting that they were the personalpossessions of Indian merchants or sailors (Tomber 2000: 630) (Figure2). [FIGURES 1-2 OMITTED] Rouletted ware and Arikamedu Type 10 are both fine wares foundpredominantly in Sri Lanka, notably at the site of Anuradhapura(Coningham 1999), and on the eastern coast of India, particularly,Arikamedu (Wheeler et al. 1946). They are thought to be tablewares anddisplay distinct decorations, which allow them to be easily identified.They are both slipped and well-fired and show a variety of coloursranging from red to grey to black (Wheeler et al. 1946). Rouletted wareis dish-shaped and contains bands of indentations on the interior base,which include a variety of shapes, such as parallel lines, triangles,diamonds, and dots, and were possibly produced using a roulette (Begley1988) (Figure 1). Rouletted ware is a key ceramic in South Asia, widelyused to date Early Historic sites (Wheeler et al. 1946). Recent researchat Anuradhapura has extended its chronology from 400 BC to AD 300(Coningham 1999). Wheeler proposed a Roman origin for these wares due tothe presence of Arretine ware and amphorae in the same levels. However,further research has indicated that the Rouletted ware actually precededthe Roman layers, which later led Vimala Begley to postulate postulate:see axiom. aMediterranean origin for the decoration, although she did suggest anindigenous provenance for the actual form of Rouletted ware (Begley1988). Arikamedu Type 10 is cup-shaped and displays stamped decoration ofbirds, notably peacocks, on the interior placed in between incised lines(Wheeler et al. 1946). It dates from 200 BC to AD 300, based onradiocarbon dates from Anuradhapura (Coningham 1999). Unfortunately,little work has been done on Arikamedu Type 10 and a Mediterraneanorigin has been postulated (Nagaswamy 1991:251). Grey ware is found at both Anuradhapura (Coningham 1999) andArikamedu (wheeler et al. 1946), although only the samples fromAnuradhapura have been analysed here. It displays a similar form andfabric to Rouletted ware, although it is not slipped. It dates from 500BC to 300 BC (Coningham 1999) and therefore pre-dates both Roulettedware and Arikamedu Type 10 and also coincides with Rouletted ware. Byincluding an analysis of Grey ware with Rouletted ware and ArikameduType 10, it is possible to compare the fabrics directly. If a similarityis indicated, then it will provide useful information about any temporalchanges and would be strong support for the theory of an indigenousorigin for these wares as Grey ware was produced prior to any externalcontact. Despite its importance, no chemical analysis of Rouletted ware wascarried out until the 1990s, when two separate publications reportedanalyses by neutron activation analysis Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) is a nuclear process used for determining certain concentrations of elements in a vast amount of materials. NAA allows discrete sampling of elements as it disregards the chemical form of a sample, and focuses solely on its nucleus. (NAA) and X-ray diffraction(XRD XRD X-Ray DiffractionXRD CrossroadXRD X-Ray Diode ) (Ardika et al. 1993), or by XRD alone (Gogte 1997). Both suggestedan indigenous origin for Rouletted ware utilising a single geologicalsource. However, these studies need further investigation because XRD isnot likely to be conclusive in assigning geological source, and the NAAresult is based on only 10 samples. Nor did these studies include Greyware and are hence lacking a temporal perspective. Debate has thereforecontinued on whether single or multiple geological sources wereexploited. Thin-section analysis by Krishnan & Coningham (1997) hasdemonstrated clear relationships between Rouletted ware and Grey ware atAnuradhapura and also between Rouletted ware from Anuradhapura andArikamedu, therefore, indicating both temporal and spatial similarities. The aim of this article is to investigate, using chemical analysesof the fabric, whether Rouletted ware, Arikamedu Type 10 and Grey warewere produced from a single geological source. Methods The chemical composition of samples of Rouletted ware, ArikameduType 10 and Grey ware, were characterised by inductively coupledplasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES ICP-AES Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission SpectroscopyICP-AES Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrophotometry ). This demonstratedsignificant similarities over a period of centuries. Because Grey warepre-dates Mediterranean contact, this can be interpreted asdemonstrating an indigenous common origin for all these wares. In anattempt to locate this source, rare earth element “Rare earth” redirects here. For other uses, see Rare earth (disambiguation).Rare earth elements and rare earth metals are a collection of sixteen chemical elements in the periodic table, namely scandium, yttrium, and fourteen of the fifteen lanthanoids (REE) analysis byinductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was carried out,which, although not conclusive, points to an Indian rather than SriLankan origin for this production centre. The chemical compositions ofthe samples were grouped and their degree of similarity or differenceassessed using statistical analysis from the SPSS A statistical package from SPSS, Inc., Chicago (www.spss.com) that runs on PCs, most mainframes and minis and is used extensively in marketing research. It provides over 50 statistical processes, including regression analysis, correlation and analysis of variance. package. Details ofthe method are given in a Technical Note (seehttp://ww.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/ford/). The samples of fine wares came from a variety of sites, includingAnuradhapura (Rouletted ware [RW], Grey ware [GW], Arikamedu Type 10,Arikamedu Type 18 and Omphalos omphalos(ōm`fəlŏs), in Greek and Roman religion, navel-shaped stone used in the rites of many cults. The most famous omphalos was at Delphi; it was supposed to mark the center of the earth. ), Kantarodai (RW and Type 10), Mantai(RW), Arikamedu (RW, Type 10), Alagankulam (RW) and Vaddamanu (RW).Other samples include modern clay and modern pottery collected atAnuradhapura by one of the authors (RAEC RAEC Royal Army Educational Corps ), and coarse wares (CW) fromAnuradhapura, Kantarodai, Mantai (all in Sri Lanka), Arikamedu andKopbal (in India). A complete list of the 127 ceramic sherds used inthis study is included in Appendix 2 on the Web(http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/ford/). Results The analyses demonstrated, to a high level of significance, thatthe fine wares were manufactured from materials deriving from the samesource. Figure 3 shows the first two components resulting from aprincipal-components analysis (PCA) of the entire data set. PC1 (41 percent of total variance) is constructed primarily from MgO (0.937), Zn(0.864), Li (0.860), V (0.856) and [Fe.sub.2][O.sub.3] (0.813)increasing to the right, with [Na.sub.2]O (-0.902), Sr (-0.875) and CaO(-0.767) to the left. This strong initial separation on the basis of CaOand MgO is interesting and might suggest a more dolomitic dol��o��mite?n.1. A white or light-colored mineral, essentially CaMg(CO3)2, used in fertilizer, as a furnace refractory, and as a construction and ceramic material.2. source oflimestone in the main group on the right-hand side of the figure, orpossibly the influence of seawater seawaterWater that makes up the oceans and seas. Seawater is a complex mixture of 96.5% water, 2.5% salts, and small amounts of other substances. Much of the world's magnesium is recovered from seawater, as are large quantities of bromine. , which has a higher Mg/Ca ratio.However, it may also point towards post-depositional influences on thesherds, especially the surface sherds found at the coastal sites ofArikamedu, Alagankulam, Vaddamanu, Kantarodai and Mantai. PC2 (17 percent) reflects increasing rare earth concentrations (La [0.939], Ce[0.907] and Y [0.882]) towards the top, and increasing Ni (-0.081), MgO(-0.080) and Zn (-0.077) towards the bottom. The usefulness of the rareearth data is discussed in more detail below. The main group on theright-hand side of Figure 3 consists of all the fine wares, includingmost of the Rouletted ware, Arikamedu Type 10, Arikamedu Type 18,Omphalos ware and Grey ware. The samples which lie towards the leftinclude the three modern clay samples from Anuradhapura (samples128-130), the sample of modern pottery from Anuradhapura (127) and thecoarse wares from Anuradhapura (numbers 82-85, 87, 88), Arikamedu (98),Mantai (100) and Kantarodai (102). The only Rouletted ware sherds whichlie outside this main group are those from Kopbal (104, 105). Thispreliminary analysis suggests that the vast majority of thearchaeological fine ware and Grey ware samples are all from a similarprovenance, and that this source is distinct from that used for eithermodern pottery from Anuradhapura, or any of the ancient coarse wares. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] This separation is confirmed and demonstrated more clearly usingstepwise stepwiseincremental; additional information is added at each step.stepwise multiple regressionused when a large number of possible explanatory variables are available and there is difficulty interpreting the partial regression discriminant dis��crim��i��nant?n.An expression used to distinguish or separate other expressions in a quantity or equation. analysis (Figure 4), with the 127 samplesclassified into 22 groups according to pottery type and find-site.Function 1 provides by far the most significant discrimination, and iscontrolled primarily by [Na.sub.2]O and Sr in the positive direction andMgO, [K.sub.2]O and [Fe.sub.2][O.sub.3] in the negative. In this figure,the majority of the samples are superimposed in the tight cluster to theleft, which consists of the Rouletted ware from Anuradhapura (Group 1),Arikamedu (Groups 7 + 15), Mantai (9), Kantarodai (11), Alagankulam (17)and Vaddamanu (18); Arikamedu Type 10 from Anuradhapura (2), Kantarodai(13) and Arikamedu (16); and Grey ware (3), Omphalos (6) and ArikameduType 18 (5) from Anuradhapura. This strong superposition su��per��po��si��tion?n.1. The act of superposing or the state of being superposed: "Yet another technique in the forensic specialist's repertoire is photo superposition" is sufficientto suggest that all of these wares come from a similar provenance. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] To study further the relationships within this overlapping group, adiscriminant analysis was undertaken after removing the samples notlisted above, leaving 112 samples classified into 13 groups. Figure 5shows some separation of these groups on the basis of Function 1 (MnO,[K.sub.2]O in the positive direction; Ce, La in the negative) andFunction 2 (+[Na.sub.2]O, MnO; -[Al.sub.2][O.sub.3], Y, La). TheAnuradhapura Grey ware (Group 3) are pulled out towards the topright-hand corner, at one end of an 'Anuradhapura' axis lyingnorth-east-south-west, which includes the Arikamedu Type 10 (Group 2),Type 18 (5) and Omphalos (6) wares found at Anuradhapura and theAnuradhapura Rouletted ware (1). The other axis seen in the diagram isthat of 'Rouletted ware', lying north-west-south-east,starting with the Anuradhapura Rouletted ware (1) at the bottom, throughthe Arikamedu Rouletted ware (7), Kantarodai RW (11), Mantai RW (9),Vaddamanu RW (18), Alagankulam RW (17), Arikamedu Type 10 (16) andending with the Arikamedu RW (15). The only sample not on either axis isthe single example of Arikamedu Type 10 found at Kantarodai (13). [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] It is fair to say that, although the discriminant analysis has hadsome success in separating these groups, it is not as much as would beexpected if they were from completely separate provenances. In light ofthe similarity suggested in Figures 3 and 4, the most likely explanationof Figure 5 is that these wares come from a similar provenance. Thesmall variation between the wares is just the sort of variation thatmight be expected if a single source is exploited over a long period oftime. This view is supported by one further discriminant analysis,classifying archaeological samples (123) by ceramic type (6 groups)irrespective of find-spot (Figure 6). This demonstrates that all thecoarse wares (Group 4) are similar, and that the Greyware (Group 3) areclose to but distinct from the main group of fine wares. This maingroup, essentially indistinguishable, contains all the Rouletted ware(1), Arikamedu Type 10 (2), Arikamedu Type 18 (5) and Omphalos (6),irrespective of find-site. [FIGURE 6 OMITTED] In view of the fact that 93 of the sherds analysed were recoveredfrom Anuradhapura, from well-dated contexts, the opportunity was alsotaken to analyse these samples by date, to discern any temporal trends.The data listed in Appendix 1 were therefore classified by period code(column 6), resulting in six groups (periods B, F, G. H, I and J).Discriminant analysis (Figure 7) shows little variation by thesecodes--possibly periods B (to the right) and I and J (to the left) areslightly removed, indicating a chronological progression, but themajority of the samples representing periods F, G and H areindistinguishable. Period J is the oldest phase, dating from c. 510 BCto 340 BC, whilst period B is the youngest, dating from c. AD 600 to AD1100 (Coningham 1999: xix). [FIGURE 7 OMITTED] A plot of the REE profiles normalised against chondrite chondrite:see meteorite. values isshown in Figure 8 and the rare earth data are presented in Appendix 2(Web file). The Rouletted ware from Anuradhapura and Arikamedu are seento be identical (apart from one sample from Arikamedu). The ArikameduType 10 and the Grey ware from Anuradhapura are also very similar,confirming the outcome of the previous discussion: Rouletted ware,Arikamedu Type 10 and Grey ware were produced from material with asimilar provenance. The REE profiles from the coarse wares (Figure 9),however, exhibit a small but significant difference. The elementeuropium europium(yrō`pēəm)[from Europe], metallic chemical element; symbol Eu; at. no. 63; at. wt. 151.96; m.p. about 820°C;; b.p. about 1,600°C;; sp. gr. 5. (Eu) is particularly diagnostic in REE profiles because it canexist in two oxidation states, and its abundance is therefore controlledby the redox redox(rē`dŏks): see oxidation and reduction. conditions in the depositional environment. All the REEprofiles discussed above display a significant negative europium anomaly(i.e. there is less europium in the sample than would be predicted fromthe other REE abundances). Four of the six coarse wares analysed fromAnuradhapura do not demonstrate a negative europium anomaly, whereas thesingle samples of coarse wares from Arikamedu, Kantarodai and Mantai doshow a negative anomaly (as do two of the six from Anuradhapura, ofcourse). The evidence is equivocal, but suggests on balance thatAnuradhapura is not the source of the clay used to manufacture the finewares discussed in this article. [FIGURES 8-9 OMITTED] To investigate this problem further, it is necessary to identifyareas of geological suitability within India as a possible source ofproduction. The coastal sites of Arikamedu, Alagankulam and Vaddamanucomprise the same geology, which is recent alluvium al��lu��vi��um?n. pl. al��lu��vi��ums or al��lu��vi��aSediment deposited by flowing water, as in a riverbed, flood plain, or delta. Also called alluvion. and extends alongthe east coast of India (Krishnan 1982). Although this suggests that theproduction of these wares could be located anywhere along this strip,archaeological evidence indicates greater quantities of sherds ofRouletted ware and associated wares in southeast India and the presenceof more sites containing these wares than in the northeast. The Greyware, which appears to be an ancestral form of Rouletted ware, has onlybeen identified at Arikamedu (south-east India) (Wheeler et al. 1946:51), Anuradhapura and Kantarodai (Sri Lanka) (Coningham & Allchin1995: 167, 171), thus supporting a south-east Indian origin. The coarse wares were analysed in an attempt to identify thegeographical location of this complex. As a group they are shown to bedistinctly different chemically from the fine wares (Figure 6), as mightbe expected. There are well-known problems in attempting to comparecoarse wares and fine wares chemically due to the inclusions present inthe coarse wares. To overcome this, we have analysed a sub-set of thesamples by solution ICP-MS. On the basis of the REE profiles, theseanalyses point to an Indian rather than Sri Lankan origin, but the exactsource remains as yet unknown. Conclusion The chemical analyses reported here suggest that the clay of themajority of the fine wares analysed (Greyware, Rouletted ware, ArikameduTypes 10 and 18 and Omphalos) came from the same or a set of closelyrelated geological sources. This could be a discrete geographicallocation, or it could be an extended source such as a major river valleyor estuary. A most important result is that Grey ware is sufficientlysimilar to the other fine wares to suggest a similar provenance. Greyware is found at both Anuradhapura and Arikamedu and pre-dates the otherfine wares, and, most important, pre-dates any Greek or Roman trade.That the Grey ware must be indigenous strongly suggests, because of thechemical similarity, that the later fine wares are also indigenous toSouth Asia. All of the later fine wares appear to be chemicallyindistinguishable, with the exception of two sherds of Rouletted warefrom Kopbal. This was to be expected, as the samples from Kopbalvisually differ significantly from typical Rouletted ware, suggestingthat these were produced locally at Kopbal. It appears that all the fine wares were not only made from the samegeological material, but also produced in consistent fabric over a longperiod of time (c. 500 BC-AD 200), as well as being traded over largedistances, from Berenike in the west (Begley & Tomber 1999) to Baliin the east (Ardika et al. 1993). This points to a single long-runningmajor ceramic production centre. Such a major craft complex has yet tobe found, and it is possible that the social organisation of productionwas dispersed and decentralised, despite a high level of ceramicstandardisation: a network of individual potters operating in a singlegeological zone, utilising similar techniques for the preparation of theclay paste and the forming and firing of vessels. Such communities areknown from ethnoarchaeological studies in Mexico, where a community ofpotters exploit a single resource area (Arnold et al. 2000: 314).However, no excavations have been conducted outside any south Asianurban centres to confirm the existence of such a pattern. Excavationswithin urban centres have yielded no evidence of pottery productionduring the Early Historic period, despite the presence of other craftactivities. For example, at Anuradhapura, there is evidence of metal,bone, antler and shell working (Coningham 1997: 358). Although there isclear evidence of local craft production at Anuradhapura, there is alsoevidence of other influences in the form of trade, with the presence ofcarnelian carnelian(kärnēl`yən)or cornelian(kôr–, kər–), variety of red chalcedony, used as a gem. from Gujarat and lapis lazuli from Afghanistan (Coningham2002). They are represented by beads, with the former dating from c. 510BC to 340 BC associated with structural period J, whilst the latterdates from c. 360 BC to 190 BC from structural period I (Coningham2002). Only intensive survey in the coastal regions of south-east Indiawith a view to recovering evidence of production sites, such as wastersand kilns, will shed light on the exact provenance of Rouletted warepottery and its related fine wares. Future research should also includethe analysis of coarser varieties of Rouletted ware to identify theproduction and distribution patterns. This will be informative of thelevel of standardisation of the coarser wares in comparison with thefine wares. Scientific comparisons may also be made with othercontemporaneous wares, such as Northern Black Polished ware The Northern Black Polished Ware culture (NBPW/NBP) of the South Asia (ca. 700 BC–200 BC) is an Iron Age culture, succeeding the Painted Grey Ware culture. It developed beginning around 700 BC, or in the late Vedic period, and peaks from circa , in order tobuild up a broader picture of ceramic production during the EarlyHistoric period. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Natural Environment Research Councilfor funding the ICP-AES sample preparation and analysis, and to Dr NickWalsh, Dr Sarah James and Nikki Paige at Royal Holloway and Belinda Hillat the University of Bradford The University of Bradford is a university in Bradford, West Yorkshire in the United Kingdom. HistoryThe university has its origins in the Bradford Schools of Weaving, Design and Building which in 1882 became the Bradford Technical College. for their assistance. One of the authors(LAF LAF Lance Armstrong Foundation (non-profit cancer organization)LAF Look and FeelLAF LaughLAF Lebanese Armed ForcesLAF Liquidity Adjustment FacilityLAF Lost And FoundLAF Laminar Air Flow ) is grateful to the Arts and Humanities Research Board for theaward of a studentship, and RAEC acknowledges the support of theArchaeological Survey Department of Sri Lanka, the British Academy, theSociety for South Asian Studies, the Ancient India and Iran Trust(Cambridge) and the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research The McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research is a research institute of the University of Cambridge in England. HistoryThe Institute was established in 1990 through a generous benefaction from the late Dr D. M. McDonald, a well-known and successful industrialist. (Cambridge). The samples from Vaddamanu were kindly provided courtesy ofthe Birla Archaeological and Cultural Research Institute (Hyderabad);those from Arikamedu, Kantarodai, Mantai, Alagankulam and Kopbal werekindly provided by Dr Raymond Allchin from the collections held in theAncient India and Iran Trust; and those from Anuradhapura were kindlyprovided by the Sri Lankan Archaeological Survey Department. Received: 9 September 2003; Accepted: 13 July 2004; Revised: 28March 2005 References ARDIKA, I.W. & P.S. BELLWOOD. 1991. Sembiran: the beginnings ofIndian contact with Bali. Antiquity 65: 221-32. ARDIKA, I.W., P.S. BELLWOOD, R.A. EGGLETON & D.J. ELLIS. 1993.A single source for South Asian export-quality Rouletted ware. Man andEnvironment 18.1: 101-109. ARDIKA, I.W., P.S. BELLWOOD, I.M. SUTABA & K.C. YULIATI. 1997.Sembiran and the first Indian contacts with Bali: an update. Antiquity71: 193-5. ARNOLD, D.E., H. NEFF & M.D. GLASCOCK. 2000. 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Coningham (3) & B.Stern (3) (1) Archaeological Services WYAS WYAS West Yorkshire Archive Service (UK), PO Box 30, Nepshaw Lane South,Morley, Leeds LS27 OUG OUG Own Use GasOUG Operational User GroupOUG Online Database Users GroupOUG Oracle Users Group , UK (2) Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art The Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art is a laboratory at the University of Oxford which develops and applies scientific methods to the study of the past.As of 2005, the Laboratory is directed by Prof. Mark Pollard. ,University of Oxford, 6 Keble Road, Oxford OX1 3QJ, UK (3) Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford,Bradford BD7 1DP, West Yorkshire, UK