A critique of the Chinese `Middle Palaeolithic'.

A critique of the Chinese `Middle Palaeolithic'. Introduction It has been conventional practice in Old World Palaeolithicarchaeology to divide an event or cultural development into threestages: an early, middle, late; or lower, middle, upper. As a result,Early, Middle, and Late Stone Ages developed in Africa, and Lower,Middle, and Upper Palaeolithic cultures were devised and applied in therest of the Old World. These stages were formed for easierclassification of artefactual adj. 1. of or pertaining to an artefact.2. made by human actions.Adj. 1. artefactual - of or relating to artifactsartifactual material, representing apparenttransitions in human cultural development, from simpler to more complex(Klein 1999; Trigger 1989). The Chinese three-stage Palaeolithic cultural model was formed inthe 1920s and 1930s when western scientists first began carrying outfieldwork there. Accordingly, the Chinese method copied the westernmodel that was based on artefactual material indigenous to the westernOld World. However, this implies that the cultural evolutionarytrajectory in China was similar to Europe, Africa and the Levant Levant(ləvănt`)[Ital.,=east], collective name for the countries of the eastern shore of the Mediterranean from Egypt to, and including, Turkey. , whenin fact few similarities appear to exist (Movius 1944; Ikawa-Smith1978b; Gao & Olsen 1997). We are interested here in examining thenature of one stage (i.e. Middle Palaeolithic) of the Chinesethree-stage cultural model. Currently, more than 40 archaeological sites in China have beendesignated Middle Palaeolithic (Zhang 1985; Qiu 1989; Wu & Poirier1995) (TABLE 1; FIGURE 1). In this paper, a number of questions will beaddressed that have arisen over the presence of a distinct MiddlePalaeolithic in China. These include: What are the criteria and methodsfor defining the Middle Palaeolithic development in China? Is there amore accurate way of classifying the large body of Palaeolithicarchaeological data in China? Finally, is the term `Middle'applicable and meaningful to the Chinese Palaeolithic? Four changes (rawmaterial procurement, core reduction, retouch and typology typology/ty��pol��o��gy/ (ti-pol��ah-je) the study of types; the science of classifying, as bacteria according to type. typologythe study of types; the science of classifying, as bacteria according to type. ), oftenutilized in western Old World archaeology to distinguish culturalevolution, are analysed for their presence/absence in the Chinese lateMiddle-early Upper Pleistocene. (1) Finally, a two-stage model ofclassifying the developmental stages of Palaeolithic cultures in Chinawill be proposed and discussed. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] What are the criteria employed for defining a Chinese MiddlePalaeolithic? Considerable efforts have been made to summarize the nature of theChinese Palaeolithic (e.g. Luchterhand 1978; Aigner 1981; Qiu 1985;1989; Wu & Olsen 1985; Zhang 1985; 1987; 1990; 1997; Huang 1989; Li1989; 1993; Olsen & Miller-Antonio 1992; Schick 1994; Lin 1996; Gao1999; 2000), and from a broader perspective, the eastern Old World (e.g.Movius 1944; 1948; Schick & Dong 1993; Pope & Keates 1994; Gao& Olsen 1997). Traditionally, two criteria have been utilized fordefining a distinct Middle Palaeolithic in China: 1 age of site; and 2 association with archaic Homo sapiens archaic Homo sapiens?Relating to or being an early form or subspecies of Homo sapiens, anatomically distinct from modern humans. Neanderthals in Europe and Solo man in Asia are usually classed as archaic humans. remains. All archaeological material dating between the late Middle-earlyUpper Pleistocene (c. 140,000-30,000 years ago) are considered MiddlePalaeolithic. Several methods have been employed to determine thegeologic age and cultural affinity for a site, including associatedfaunae and hominid hominidAny member of the zoological family Hominidae (order Primates), which consists of the great apes (orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos) as well as human beings. fossils, stratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat variation and absolute dating Absolute dating is the process of determining a specific date for an archaeological or palaeontological site or artifact. Some archaeologists prefer the terms chronometric or calendar . Association with distinct fauna Western scholars who conducted the initial Palaeolithic research inChina (e.g. Andersson, Licent, Teilhard de Chardin Teil��hard de Char��din? , Pierre 1881-1955.French priest, paleontologist, and philosopher who maintained that the universe and humankind are evolving toward a perfect state. ), brought the methodof biostratigraphic dating with them. Due to the fact that a number ofChinese Palaeolithic researchers are actuallygeologists-turned-archaeologists, the use of faunal correlations inChina has been long-lasting (Chang 1981; 1986). A number of Chinese Pleistocene faunal accumulations have beendesignated type assemblages for certain geological time periods,including Nihewan and Gongwangling for the Lower Pleistocene,Zhoukoudian Locality I for the Middle Pleistocene So far, the Pleistocene Series is not subdivided into formal units (i.e., Stages). Several solutions were proposed, and dedicated working groups are presently pursuing an agreed solution. and Salawusu for theUpper Pleistocene (Pei 1957; Han & Xu 1989; Qi 1989). Faunalaccumulations from other archaeological and Palaeontological Adj. 1. palaeontological - of or relating to paleontologypaleontological sites arecompared with these index assemblages in order to derive relativechronological ages. For instance, the Zhoukoudian Locality 15 faunalassemblage Faunal Assemblage is the archaeological or paleontological term for a group of associated animal fossils found together in a given stratum.The principle of faunal succession is used in biostratigraphy to determine each biostratigraphic unit, or biozone. was interpreted to be younger than Locality 1, but older thanZhoukoudian Upper Cave based on presence/absence of certain extinctspecies This page features extinct species, organisms that have become extinct. List of extinct animals List of extinct plants (Gao 2000; see TABLE 2 for a list of typical faunae from thistemporal period divided into northern and southern regions). There has been considerable debate over the use of biostratigraphicdating in China (e.g. Aigner 1972; Li 1982; Hah & Xu 1989; Qi 1989).A major problem is that some index faunal assemblages are quite largeand include taxa that survived for long chronological periods, such asthe Ailuropoda--Stegodon assemblage in South China (Li 1982), and theSalawusu assemblage in North China (Gai & Huang 1982). In addition,many samples were collected with little or no stratigraphic control(Pope 1988). Accordingly, biostratigraphic dating often cannot provideinformation on the age of the site in question. Association with archaic Homo sapiens Eleven archaeological sites in China have exposed archaic Homosapiens fossils, including Jinniushan, Miaohoushan, Gezidong,Zhoukoudian Locality 4, Xujiayao Locality 74093, Dingcun Locality54:100, Dali, Laochihe, Xiadingjia, Shiziyan and Xiaohuidong (Wu &Wu 1985; Wu & Poirier 1995). Nevertheless, it has been realized overthe past few decades that there is no longer any reason to believe thata direct relationship exists between a hominid group and a stone toolculture (e.g. Neandertals, long associated with Levallois stone tooltechnology, being found with Upper Palaeolithic Chatelperronian lithics:Stringer string��er?n.1. One that strings: a stringer of beads.2. Architecturea. A long heavy horizontal timber used as a support or connector.b. A stringboard. & Gamble 1993). A few of these Chinese findings have proven to be even moreproblematical. For instance, Miaohoushan and Jinniushan were classifiedas Lower Palaeolithic, for they were originally assigned a MiddlePleistocene age based on geology and biostratigraphy bi��o��stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of the spatial and temporal distribution of fossil organisms, often interpolated with radiometric, geochemical, and paleoenvironmental information as a means of dating rock strata. (Jinniushan Team1976; 1978; Liaoning & Benxi Museum 1986; Chen et al. 1993; Zheng& Kang 1994). However, following these designations, archaic H.sapiens sa��pi��ens?adj.Of, relating to, or characteristic of Homo sapiens.[Latin sapi were discovered at these two sites (Zhang 1981; Wu 1988).Nevertheless, these findings failed to change the original assignments. Geological strata It is common practice in China to compare strata bearing artefactsand hominid fossil remains with stratigraphy stratigraphy,branch of geology specifically concerned with the arrangement of layered rocks (see stratification). Stratigraphy is based on the law of superposition, which states that in a normal sequence of rock layers the youngest is on top and the oldest on the from already-establishedgeological units (i.e. index strata with known chronometric chro��nom��e��ter?n.An exceptionally precise timepiece.chrono��met age). Forinstance, the early reconstructions of the Zhoukoudian chronology werecarried out in this way (e.g. Teilhard de Chardin & Young 1929;Black et al. 1933). Jia and others (1961) divided Palaeolithicindustries in Shanxi Province into three periods based solely ongeological reconstructions: 1 Palaeolithic cultures from the Red Loess loess(lĕs, lō`əs, Ger. lös), unstratified soil deposit of varying thickness, usually yellowish and composed of fine-grained angular mineral particles mixed with clay. horizon; 2 Palaeolithic cultures from the gravel zone underneath the YellowLoess; 3 Palaeolithic cultures from the Yellow Loess horizon. However, these geological divisions are too coarse and areinsufficient to distinguish finer variation in hominid culture. Inaddition, it is difficult deriving precise chronological and/or culturalaffinities when the archaeological site in question is situated adistance from the index locality. Absolute dating Beginning in the 1970s, a variety of chronometric methods have beenapplied to dating Palaeolithic sites in China, includingpalaeomagnetism, radiocarbon, uranium-series, electron spin resonance electron spin resonance (ESR)or electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)Technique of spectroscopic analysis (see spectroscopy) used to identify paramagnetic substances (see ,thermoluminescence thermoluminescenceEmission of light from certain heated substances as a result of previous exposure to high-energy radiation. The radiation causes displacement of electrons within the crystal lattice of the substance. , fission track fission trackA track left by the decay of uranium atoms in a mineral. By analyzing the number and nature of these tracks in a sample mineral and inducing further fission of the remaining uranium by irradiation with neutrons to create new tracks for , and amino acid amino acid(əmē`nō), any one of a class of simple organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and in certain cases sulfur. These compounds are the building blocks of proteins. racemization racemization/ra��ce��mi��za��tion/ (ra?se-mi-za��shun) the transformation of one half of the molecules of an optically active compound into molecules having exactly the opposite configuration, with complete loss of rotatory power because of . Ingeneral, the results of the absolute dating methods applied to lateMiddle-early Upper Pleistocene sites correlate with the chronologicalframework established through geological and biostratigraphicreconstructions (Wang 1989). However, in a few instances, the derivedabsolute dates have challenged the original cultural assignments. Forexample, uranium-series dates pushed the Dali and Dingcun sites back to230-180,000 and 210-160,000 (2) years ago (Chen et al. 1984). If thesedates are reliable, then these two sites belong to the MiddlePleistocene and accordingly, their cultural affinities should be LowerPalaeolithic, rather than Middle Palaeolithic. Guanyindong in GuizhouProvince is another site with problematical dates. This site has beenlong regarded as the most important Lower Palaeolithic site in southernChina (Pei & Zhang 1985; Li & Wen 1986). However, severaluranium-series dates derived a much younger age for the site, rangingfrom 57,000 to 115,000 years (Yuan et al. 1986; but see Shen Shen,in the Bible, place, perhaps close to Bethel, near which Samuel set up the stone Ebenezer. & Jin1992), a time range that falls well within the Middle Palaeolithic. Nevertheless, geological, palaeontological and chronometric methodscan only determine the relative and/or absolute age of the site. Thecultural affinities of these late Middle-early Upper Pleistocene sitesfrom China must rely on changes in culture, rather than datingtechniques and/or association with certain hominid fossils (Jelinek1982). Accordingly, in order to determine whether a distinct MiddlePalaeolithic existed in China, interpretations must be based on thearchaeological material from these sites. Criteria necessary to form a new cultural sequence in China In order to evaluate the Chinese `Middle Palaeolithic' as anindependent entity, four arbitrary technological, typological andmorphological characteristics related to stone tool manufacturing wereanalysed. These criteria include: 1 raw material procurement; 2 core reduction; 3 retouch; and 4 typology (TABLE 3). If a new technological development occurred in China during thelate Middle-early Upper Pleistocene, we may expect to see theexploitation of higher-quality raw material and/or the introduction ofnew or exotic lithic lith��ic?1?adj.Consisting of or relating to stone or rock.Adj. 1. lithic - of or containing lithium2. lithic - relating to or composed of stone; "lithic sandstone" raw material Throughout the Pleistocene, there was a steady trend of selectinghigher-quality lithic raw material for tool manufacture (Toth &Schick 1986; Klein 1989; Dibble 1991; Otte 1991). The introduction ofexotic raw material at a site would be evidence for transport overlonger distances or possibly long-distance trade (Binford 1980; 1989;Kelly 1995). Relatively little research has been done on sourcing raw materialdeposits in China (S. Keates pers. comm. 2001). However, it appears thatup through the late Upper Pleistocene in China local raw materials werepredominantly utilized for stone tool making. Because hominids madelittle effort at procuring high-quality raw material, the result wasthat a variety of local stone material, with poor workability, wereused. This placed certain restrictions on the development andapplication of more advanced stone tool making techniques and theresulting morphology of many of these artefacts remained irregular,small, and simple. For example, the majority of cores, flakes, and scrapers fromZhoukoudian Locality 15 were made on local vein quartz 1. Quartz occurring as gangue in a vein. . The percentageof major raw material sources utilized at Zhoukoudian betweenoccupations at Locality I and 15 does not differ greatly (FIGURE 2;TABLE 4). The cores and flakes from Dali were produced on localquartzite quartzite,usually metamorphic rock composed of firmly cemented quartz grains. Most often it is white, light gray, yellowish, or light brown, but is sometimes colored blue, green, purple, or black by included minerals. , flint, and vein quartz. The stone implements from Xujiayaowere produced on local vein quartz, chert chert:see flint. , igneous rock igneous rock:see rock. igneous rockAny of various crystalline or glassy, noncrystalline rocks formed by the cooling and solidification of molten earth material (magma). , agate andquartzite (FIGURE 3). Quartz and quartzite are extremely difficult rawmaterial to produce good quality lithics (Shea 1992). Even chert andflint chert and flintVery fine-grained quartz, a silica mineral with minor impurities. Flint is gray to black and nearly opaque (translucent brown in thin splinters). Opaque, dull, whitish to pale brown or gray specimens are called simply chert. used at some sites can be located easily on the nearby river beds,with small dimensions and uneven texture. As a result, lithic toolsproduced on those materials are usually small and irregular. Anexception to the use of poor quality raw material are the Dingcun lithicassemblages, which were produced predominantly on local dark hornfels horn��fels?n. pl. hornfelsA fine-grained metamorphic rock composed of quartz, feldspar, mica, and other minerals, formed by the action of intrusive rock upon sedimentary rock, especially shale. , ahigh quality raw material for stone tool making (FIGURE 4). [FIGURES 2-4 OMITTED] Evidence does not exist for the intensive exploitation ofspecialized stone raw material until the late Upper Pleistocene. Some ofthese sites include lithic workshops from Dayao in Inner Mongolia Inner MongoliaChinese Nei Mongol or Nei-meng-kuAutonomous region (pop., 2002 est.: 23,790,000), China. Stretching some 1,800 mi (2,900 km) across north-northeastern China, it has an area of 454,600 sq mi (1,177,500 sq km); its capital is Hohhot. andDaguduishan and E'maokou in Shanxi Province. With a transition from a simpler to a more advanced lithictechnology In archeology, Lithic Technology refers to a broad array of techniques and styles to produce usable tools from various types of stone. The earliest stone tools were recovered from modern Ethiopia and were dated to between two-million and three-million years old. we would expect to see changes in core reduction Changes in core reduction techniques, particularly from simple hardhammer direct percussion direct percussionn.See immediate percussion. , bipolar method and block-on-block technique tomore advanced methods (e.g. prepared platform, indirect percussion)would be expected during a transition between a Lower and MiddlePalaeolithic (Toth & Schick 1986; Schick & Toth 1993; Schick1994). Accordingly, we would expect to see more regular flakemorphologies and sizes during the Middle Palaeolithic than an earliercultural period. A variety of flaking techniques have been employed in China duringthe Pleistocene, including hard hammer direct percussion, the bipolarmethod and block-on-block technique. Prior to the late UpperPleistocene, core reduction in China remained simple and casual,evidenced by simple unidirectional and multidirectional cores, disccores, polyhedral polyhedral/poly��he��dral/ (-he��dril) having many sides or surfaces. polyhedralhaving many sides or surfaces. cores, and bipolar cores, without systematicpreparation on the body or the platform. The resulting flakes areusually irregular in morphology and small in size (Zhang 1987; Lin1996). An exception is the Dingcun lithic assemblage. Some`Kombewa-type' flakes have been identified from the site recently.Many flakes are large in size and regular in shape, with some evidenceof platform preparation, suggesting a relatively sophisticated flakingtechnique (Pei et al. 1958; Wang & Tao 1991; Wang et al. 1994)(FIGURE 4). It is believed that direct hard hammer percussion was theprinciple core reduction technique at Dingcun (Liu 1988; Li 1992; Li1997). The regularity in flake size and morphology is probably relatedto the high-quality raw material (hornfels) that was utilized at theDingcun site. It is not until the late Upper Pleistocene that evidence exists forsoft hammer direct percussion, indirect percussion and pressure flakingfor production of blades and microblades. Coeval co��e��val?adj.Originating or existing during the same period; lasting through the same era.n.One of the same era or period; a contemporary. with these new flakingmethods are evidence for core and prepared platform techniques toproduce flakes that are more regular in size and shape. These new corereduction methods are present at late Upper Pleistocene sites likeShuidonggou (26,190 [+ or -] 800 BP-17,250 [+ or -] 210 BP), Chaisi(26,400 [+ or -] 800 BP), Xiachuan (23,900 [+ or -] 1000 BP-16,400 [+ or-] 900 BP), Xueguan (13,550 [+ or -] 150 BP), and Hutouliang (11,000 [+or -] 2100 BP) (Huang 1989; Wang 1989; Jia & Huang 1985; Li 1993;Madsen et al. 2001). We would expect to see more extensive, refined retouch in lithicimplements during the Middle Palaeolithic In order to make more efficient lithic implements, after theinitial flakes are taken off the core, retouch is necessary toregularize reg��u��lar��ize?tr.v. reg��u��lar��ized, reg��u��lar��iz��ing, reg��u��lar��iz��esTo make regular; cause to conform.reg the cutting edge of the stone tool or to reshape andresharpen the tool. Throughout most of the Palaeolithic in China, tools were notextensively retouched and the retouching was usually not wellcontrolled. This resulted in the morphology of the stone implement beinglargely determined by the original form of the blank, not by secondarymodification. In addition, the cutting edges are generally irregular.Retouch, done by simple direct hard hammer percussion, is often found onthe dorsal dorsal/dor��sal/ (dor��s'l)1. pertaining to the back or to any dorsum.2. denoting a position more toward the back surface than some other object of reference; a synonym of posterior surface of the flakes. For instance, some single-sidedscrapers from Zhoukoudian Locality 15, with straight, convex and concave Convex and Concave is a lithograph print by the Dutch artist M. C. Escher which was first printed in March, 1955.It depicts an ornate architectural structure with many stairs, pillars and other shapes. cutting edges, contain evidence of retouch, though casual or minor innature (FIGURE 5) (Gao 2000). [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] In the late Upper Pleistocene, some lithic assemblages exhibitcontrolled and improved retouching techniques (e.g. soft hammer andpressure flaking), as evidenced by a more advanced level in toolstandardization in terms of morphology and modification; such samplescan be found from Shiyu, Shuidonggou, Xiachuan, Hutouliang and manyother sites. A greater diversity in tool types should be present in the MiddlePalaeolithic than an earlier cultural stage With an increased sophistication so��phis��ti��cate?v. so��phis��ti��cat��ed, so��phis��ti��cat��ing, so��phis��ti��catesv.tr.1. To cause to become less natural, especially to make less naive and more worldly.2. in core reduction and retouchtechniques, a greater range of tool types should develop. In addition,if hominids were more residentially stable during the MiddlePalaeolithic, this may potentially have given them more time to generatea greater diversity of lithic implements. This expansion in stone tooltypes is clearly evident during the late Upper Pleistocene (i.e. UpperPalaeolithic), but in some regions of the Old World began some timeduring the Middle Palaeolithic (Klein 1999; Kuhn 1995). Through time, there is an increase in the number of tool typespresent at Palaeolithic sites in China. The scraper See scraping. was the mostimportant tool type in the early part of the Chinese Palaeolithic, withthe number of points increasing and the percentage of chopper-choppingtools decreasing through time (Zhang 1989; 1990). Nevertheless, it wasnot until the late Upper Pleistocene where there is a florescence instone tool types in China. New lithic typologies that appear or becomemore important in the late Upper Pleistocene Chinese archaeologicalrecord The archaeological record is a term used in archaeology to denote all archaeological evidence, including the physical remains of past human activities which archaeologists seek out and record in an attempt to analyze and reconstruct the past. include blades, end scrapers, burins, borers, microcores andmicroblades (FIGURE 6). In addition, implements made on bone and antler antler:see horn. raw material with fine workmanship appear for the first time during thelate Upper Pleistocene. For instance, the earliest appearance ofpolished bone tools exists at Zhoukoudian Upper Cave, with confirmedradiocarbon dates placing it solidly in the late Upper Pleistocene(approximately 27,000 BP. Chen et al. 1992). [FIGURE 6 OMITTED] Discussion Replacing the three-stage sequence with a two-stage cultural modelin China Instead of adhering to the Western-derived three-stage system thatdoes not fit the Chinese archaeological record, a two-stage model toorganize the Chinese Palaeolithic industries is proposed here. That is,the Palaeolithic of China should be collapsed into two cultural stages:Early and Late Palaeolithic. The Chinese Early Palaeolithic began sometime before 1 millionyears ago (some researchers suggest an age as early as 2 million yearsago) and ended around 30-27,000 years ago, covering the original Lowerand Middle Palaeolithic periods in China. Major sites include Yuanmou,Yunxian, Lantian, Zhoukoudian (see Jia 1985; 1989; Zhang 1985; 1989; Li1989), and all sites originally assigned to the Middle Palaeolithic.These assemblages share a number of common features in lithic typologyand technology, which are summarized as follows: * only locally available raw materials, usually with poorworkability, were exploited; * core reduction was accomplished by a variety of simple flakingmethods, including direct hammer percussion, the bipolar technique, andblock-on-block method, without much core or platform preparation; * most flakes are irregular in morphology and small in size, andmany flakes were used directly without further modification; * the majority of retouched tools were simple and casuallymanufactured, with irregular working edges and morphology largelydetermined by the original shape of the blank, not by secondary retouch; * only a limited number of tool categories were produced, with themost common types being scrapers, chopper/chopping tools and points; * it is difficult distinguishing clear boundaries between differenttool morphologies; thus, the definition of some tool types remainarbitrary; * most of the stone tools are small in size, with the exception ofheavy-duty implements collected from some sites (e.g. picks, hand-axes,cleavers, thick points and spheroids) (Huang 1993). It is not argued here that cultural development from the LowerPleistocene to early Upper Pleistocene in China was stagnant. Changesand development occurred in the Chinese Palaeolithic stone toolindustries prior to 30,000-27,000 BP. For instance, use of theblock-on-block method for flake production declined and eventuallydisappeared. Direct hard hammer percussion became more mature, with moreregular flakes produced and an increase in number of flake toolsevident. A more diverse set of stone tool types developed and implementswith controlled retouch increased (Zhang 1989). However, thesedevelopments were gradual rather than abrupt; insufficient to support adivision into two distinct cultural periods. The Chinese Late Palaeolithic began at about 30,000-27,000 BP andended at approximately 10,000 BP. More than 300 localities have beenassigned to this period (Li 1993), but only about 20 have beensystematically investigated (Huang 1989). Major sites for this periodinclude Yanjiagang, Xiaogushan, Zhoukoudian Upper Cave, Shuidonggou,Salawusu, Shiyu, Xiaonanhai, Hutouliang, Xiachuan, Chaisi and Xueguan inNorth China; and Tongliang, Fulin, Baiyanjiaodong, Chuandong andMaomaodong in South China. The major characteristic of the Chinese Late Palaeolithic is thediversity of lithic assemblages. Late Palaeolithic industries in Chinacan be classified into four distinct groups (Huang 1989; Li 1993): * The blade technocomplex, represented by the Shuidonggou industry,in which blade and blade tools comprise roughly 20% of the lithicassemblage. Major artefact See artifact. types include blade cores, prepared cores,flakes with faceted platforms, triangle flakes, side scrapers, endscrapers, points, borers, gravers and notches. Many of the retouchedtools exhibit fine craftsmanship. In addition, many of the Shuidonggouartefacts are comparable with some stone tool types from the west(Breuil 1928; Bordes 1978). * The microblade technocomplex, represented by Xiachuan, Xueguan,Hutouliang, and Chaishi. More than 200 Chinese archaeological localitieshave been found associated with microblade artefacts, ranging from thelate Upper Pleistocene to mid-Holocene (Lu 1998). Major artefact typesinclude microblade cores, microblades and tools made on microblades,side scrapers, end scrapers, points, backed knives, borers, gravers andnotches. There are also traditional core-flake types in theseassemblages. * The flake technocomplex remains the main tool industry of theChinese Late Palaeolithic. In terms of typological and technologicalcharacters, these Late Palaeolithic flakes are carried over from theearlier cultural period. These lithic assemblages are dominated by smallartefacts and have been referred to as the `small tool tradition'(Jia et al. 1972; Jia & Huang 1985; Huang 1989) and the `principallithic industry of North China' (Zhang 1990; 1997). The majority ofthese sites are distributed in northern China, with typical sitesincluding Zhoukoudian Upper Cave, Shiyu, Salawusu, Xiaonanhai andXiaogushan. * The `zero-platformed flake' technocomplex is a newlyclassified lithic industry from southwestern China, and is characterizedby flakes without platforms and tools made on such flakes (Li 1993).Experimental studies suggest that the `zero-platformed flakes' wereproduced by a unique bipolar method; that is, to strike ananvil-supported core by a ridged hammerstone ham��mer��stone?n. ArchaeologyA stone or cobble used as a pounding or pecking tool.hammerstone?A hand-held stone or cobble used by hominids perhaps as early as 2. at an oblique angle (Zhang1987: 58-9). Major sites include Maomaodong, Baiyanjiaodong andChuandong. It is the development of the blade and microblade industries in thelate Upper Pleistocene that signals the break from the long andconservative Palaeolithic cultural development in China. There is a general consensus that the Late Palaeolithic small flaketoolkits and blade and microblade technocomplexes were a directoutgrowth of the small core-flake industry of the Early Palaeolithic inNorth China based on technological and typological comparisons (Jia etal. 1972; Jia 1978; Gal 1985; 1991; Li & Shi 1985; Jia & Huang1985; Huang 1989). Zhoukoudian Locality 15, Dingcun and Banjingzi areincluded among the list of possible sources for the newly developedcultural elements in the Late Palaeolithic (Li 1993). However, not every Chinese archaeologist believes that all ChineseLate Palaeolithic industries developed directly from the indigenousEarly Palaeolithic. While the idea of cultural succession orcontinuation in Palaeolithic China has its basis in the archaeologicalrecord, it is undeniable that social and political considerations play arole. It is only recently that some Chinese archaeologists have beenwilling to examine outside regions as possible sources for thetechnological and typological developments in Late Palaeolithic China.For instance, Zhang Senshui (1987; 1990) believes that theblade-microblade assemblages found in North China share manytechnological and typological features with some assemblages fromMongolia and Russia. Based on such observations, Zhang proposed thatChinese blade-microblade remains are not natural developments of theindigenous stone tool industries, but rather the result of culturalexchange with the north and northwest populations. Mousterian andmicroblade artefacts with relatively earlier ages have been recognizedfrom Central Asia, Mongolia and the Russian Far East (Brantingham et al.2001; Derevianko & Markin 1995; Derevianko & Petrin 1995;Derevianko et al. 1998), and no natural barriers can be found from thoseregions that could have prevented those technocomplexes from penetratingthe more southern areas. This hypothesis deserves further study andpossibly holds the key for the breakthrough of the Late Palaeolithiccultural development in the late Upper Pleistocene in China and greaterNortheast Asia (e.g. Korea--Norton 2000). Summary and conclusions The major goal of this paper was not to present a complete reviewof Middle Palaeolithic archaeological discoveries in China. Instead,four archaeological criteria (raw material procurement, core reduction,retouch and typology), often used in determining cultural affinities oflithic assemblages, were used to determine the validity of the Chinese`Middle Palaeolithic' record. The major results of this study maybe summarized as follows: * Of the hundreds of known Palaeolithic localities in China,roughly 40 sites have been assigned to the Middle Palaeolithic; * The distribution of these Middle Palaeolithic sites are veryuneven; most of them are located in central northern China, and only afew are found sporadically in southern China, although it might beattributed in certain degree to the lack of systematic fieldwork in thesouthern part of the country; * Only a few of these Middle Palaeolithic sites have yieldedabundant archaeological data. Seventeen sites have produced more than100 stone artefacts, but only five localities produced more that 1000lithic remains; * Most of these sites have never been systematically investigated.Even when extensive excavations were carried out, few lithic assemblageshave been analysed in detail; * Only a few sites have been dated by chronometric methods; * Many of these sites are open-air localities, with a considerablenumber of artefacts collected from river gravel River gravel are small pieces of rounded stone, usually no larger than a large coin, of a various colors. It is named for the effect of many years of rounding of the edges due to a flow of water over it. deposits. Accordingly,study of the formation processes may hold the key to interpreting theaccumulation of these archaeological assemblages, and ultimately, thereconstruction of past hominid behaviour. * The Middle Palaeolithic of China has traditionally beendetermined through geological and palaeontological reconstructions,along with associations of archaic Homo sapiens fossil remains; * Analysis of raw material procurement, core reduction, toolblanks, retouch, and typology indicates that a clear distinction betweena Lower and Middle Palaeolithic in China does not exist. Finally, a distinct `Middle Palaeolithic' cultural period doesnot exist in China. None of the lithic assemblages from these MiddlePalaeolithic sites fit the four criteria utilized to discern a clearMiddle Palaeolithic. Henceforth, the three-stage cultural sequencecurrently applied in Pleistocene China, should be replaced by atwo-stage cultural development: Early and Late Palaeolithic. Thetwo-stage cultural model proposed here, though necessarily qualitative,will hopefully generate more discussion and quantitative analyses of theChinese late Middle-early Upper Pleistocene archaeological material inorder to derive a better understanding of the Chinese Palaeolithic stonetool record, and from a broader perspective, the nature of the hominidevolutionary record of greater East Asia East AsiaA region of Asia coextensive with the Far East.East Asian adj. & n. .TABLE 1. Major Chinese Middle Palaeolithic sites. MP = MiddlePleistocene. UP = Upper Pleistocene.site # site name open air/ chronologicalon map and location cave age1 Jinniushan, cave 170,000-300,000 Liaoning Province2 Gezidong, cave n/a Liaoning Province3 Zhoukoudian, cave 110,000-140,000 Locality 153 Zhoukoudian, cave 135,000-175,000 Locality 43 Zhoukoudian, cave n/a Locality 224 Banjingzi, Nihewan, open air n/a Hebei Province5 Xujiayao Locality open air, 100,000-125,000 74093, Yangyuan, fluviolacustrine Hebei Province deposit5 Xujiayao Locality open air, n/a 73113, Yanggao, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit6 Dingcun Locality open air, n/a 54:90, Xiangfen, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit6 Dingcun Locality open air, n/a 54:93, Xiangfen, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit6 Dingcun Locality open air, n/a 54:94, Xiangfen, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit6 Dingcun Locality open air, n/a 54:95, Xiangfen, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit6 Dingcun Locality open air, n/a 54:96, Xiangfen, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit6 Dingcun Locality open air, n/a 54:97, Xiangfen, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit6 Dingcun Locality open air, n/a 54:98, Xiangfen, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit6 Dingcun Locality open air, n/a 54:99, Xiangfen, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit6 Dingcun Locality open air, 160,000-210,000, 54:100, Xiangfen, fluviolacustrine 124,000 [+ or -] 700, Shanxi Province deposit or 69,300-93,1006 Dingcun Locality open-air n/a 54:102, Xiangfen, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit6 Dingcun Locality open-air, n/a 80:01, Xiangfen, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit7 Shicun and Jiangou, open air, n/a Dingcun, Xiangfen, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit8 Licunxigou, Quwo, open air, >50,000 Shanxi Province fluviolacustrine deposit9 Nanliang, Houma, open air, n/a Shanxi Province fluviolacustrine deposit10 Dongzaowencun, open air, n/a Yongji, fluviolacustrine Shanxi Province deposit11 Gujiao, Taiyuan, open air, n/a Shaanxi Province fluviolacustrine deposit12 Dali, Tianshuigou, open air, 180,000-230,000 Shaanxi Province fluviolacustrine deposit13 Laochihe, Lantian, open air, n/a Shaanxi Province fluviolacustrine deposit14 Yaotougou, open air, n/a Changwu, fluviolacustrine Shaanxi Province deposit15 Jiangjiawan 7401, open air n/a Zhenyuan, Gansu Province16 Sigoukou 7403, open air n/a Zhenyuan, Gansu Province17 Zhaojiacha, open air n/a Qingyang, Gansu Province18 Nancun, Mianchi, open air, n/a Henan Province fluviolacustrine deposit19 Yandunbao and open air n/a Gaojiazhen, Fengdu, Sichun Province19 Gaojiazhen, Fengdu, open air n/a Sichun Province20 Lianhuachishan and open air n/a Zulin, Zhangzhou, Fujian Province21 Shiziyan, Maba, cave 135,000-129,000 Guangdong Province22 Xiaohuidong, cave 52,000 Shuicheng, Guizhou Province23 Yanhuidong, cave 130,000-180,000 Tongzi, or Guizhou Province 200,000-240,00024 Bianbiandong, cave n/a Guizhou Provincesite # site name dating geological ageon map and location technique1 Jinniushan, uranium-series late MP-early UP Liaoning Province2 Gezidong, biostratigraphy early-middle UP Liaoning Province3 Zhoukoudian, uranium-series late MP-early UP Locality 153 Zhoukoudian, uranium-series early UP Locality 43 Zhoukoudian, biostratigraphy MP-UP Locality 224 Banjingzi, Nihewan, geology UP Hebei Province5 Xujiayao Locality uranium-series late MP-early UP 74093, Yangyuan, Hebei Province5 Xujiayao Locality uranium-series MP-UP 73113, Yanggao, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality biostratigraphy MP-UP 54:90, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality biostratigraphy MP-UP 54:93, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality biostratigraphy MP-UP 54:94, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality biostratigraphy MP-UP 54:95, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality biostratigraphy MP-UP 54:96, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality biostratigraphy MP-UP 54:97, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality biostratigraphy MP-UP 54:98, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality biostratigraphy MP-UP 54:99, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality uranium-series, MP-UP 54:100, Xiangfen, amino acid Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality biostratigraphy MP-UP 54:102, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality biostratigraphy early UP 80:01, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province7 Shicun and Jiangou, biostratigraphy MP-UP Dingcun, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province8 Licunxigou, Quwo, uranium-series UP Shanxi Province9 Nanliang, Houma, biostratigraphy UP Shanxi Province10 Dongzaowencun, stratigraphy late MP-early UP Yongji, Shanxi Province11 Gujiao, Taiyuan, geology UP Shaanxi Province12 Dali, Tianshuigou, uranium-series late MP-early UP Shaanxi Province13 Laochihe, Lantian, geology UP Shaanxi Province14 Yaotougou, biostratigraphy UP Changwu, Shaanxi Province15 Jiangjiawan 7401, geology UP Zhenyuan, Gansu Province16 Sigoukou 7403, geology UP Zhenyuan, Gansu Province17 Zhaojiacha, geology UP Qingyang, Gansu Province18 Nancun, Mianchi, geology UP Henan Province19 Yandunbao and geology UP Gaojiazhen, Fengdu, Sichun Province19 Gaojiazhen, Fengdu, geology UP Sichun Province20 Lianhuachishan and stratigraphy, UP Zulin, Zhangzhou, geology Fujian Province21 Shiziyan, Maba, uranium-series late MP-early UP Guangdong Province22 Xiaohuidong, uranium-series UP Shuicheng, Guizhou Province23 Yanhuidong, uranium-series late MP-early UP Tongzi, Guizhou Province24 Bianbiandong, geology UP Guizhou Provincesite # site name hominid archaeologicalon map and location fossils remains1 Jinniushan, archaic Homo cores, flakes, Liaoning Province sapiens bipolar products, cranium scrapers, points, and partial burins, bone tools postcranium2 Gezidong, tooth? cores, flakes, Liaoning Province scrapers, points and burned items3 Zhoukoudian, n/a cores, flakes, Locality 15 bipolar products, scrapers, points, burins, cleavers, chopper-chopping tools and burned items3 Zhoukoudian, archaic H. dozens of lithic Locality 4 sapiens artefacts and tooth two bone tools3 Zhoukoudian, n/a a few cores, flakes Locality 22 and scrapers4 Banjingzi, Nihewan, n/a numerous lithic Hebei Province artefacts5 Xujiayao Locality archaic H. cores, flakes, scrapers, 74093, Yangyuan, sapiens points, burins, borers, Hebei Province teeth and choppers, spheroids and cranial bone-antler products frags.5 Xujiayao Locality n/a a few lithic artefacts 73113, Yanggao, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality n/a 244 artefacts, including 54:90, Xiangfen, scrapers, chopper- Shanxi Province chopping tools, points and picks6 Dingcun Locality n/a one artefact 54:93, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality n/a 7 artefacts 54:94, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality n/a 25 artefacts, including 54:95, Xiangfen, scrapers and choppers Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality n/a 90 artefacts, including 54:96, Xiangfen, points-picks, scrapers, Shanxi Province chopper-chopping tools6 Dingcun Locality n/a 318 artefacts, including 54:97, Xiangfen, small points, thick Shanxi Province points-picks, scrapers, chopper-chopping tools, spheroids6 Dingcun Locality n/a 529 artefacts, including 54:98, Xiangfen, small points, thick Shanxi Province points-picks, scrapers, chopper-chopping tools6 Dingcun Locality n/a 219 lithic artefacts 54:99, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality archaic H. 171 lithic artefacts 54:100, Xiangfen, sapiens Shanxi Province teeth and cranial frags.6 Dingcun Locality n/a 176 lithic artefacts 54:102, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality n/a 297 artefacts, including 80:01, Xiangfen, cores, flakes, Shanxi Province triangular points chopper-chopping tools, scrapers, backed knives, spheroids7 Shicun and Jiangou, n/a 42 lithic artefacts Dingcun, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province8 Licunxigou, Quwo, n/a 686 lithic artefacts, Shanxi Province including cores, flakes, scrapers, points, burins, spheroids9 Nanliang, Houma, n/a 13 lithic artefacts Shanxi Province10 Dongzaowencun, n/a 20 lithic artefacts Yongji, Shanxi Province11 Gujiao, Taiyuan, n/a 12 lithic artefacts Shaanxi Province12 Dali, Tianshuigou, archaic H. 400 lithic artefacts Shaanxi Province sapiens cranium13 Laochihe, Lantian, n/a 260 lithic artefacts Shaanxi Province14 Yaotougou, n/a >200 lithic artefacts Changwu, Shaanxi Province15 Jiangjiawan 7401, n/a 39 lithic artefacts Zhenyuan, Gansu Province16 Sigoukou 7403, n/a 9 lithic artefacts Zhenyuan, Gansu Province17 Zhaojiacha, n/a 2 artefacts Qingyang, Gansu Province18 Nancun, Mianchi, n/a 1 flake, 1 point, Henan Province 1 chopper19 Yandunbao and n/a 1215 lithic artefacts: Gaojiazhen, Fengdu, cores, flakes, Sichun Province scrapers, etc.19 Gaojiazhen, Fengdu, n/a >1500 lithic artefacts Sichun Province20 Lianhuachishan and n/a 39 lithic artefacts Zulin, Zhangzhou, Fujian Province21 Shiziyan, Maba, archaic H. 2 lithic artefacts Guangdong Province sapiens calotte22 Xiaohuidong, archaic H. 53 lithic artefacts Shuicheng, sapiens Guizhou Province tooth23 Yanhuidong, H. sapiens 13 stone artefacts Tongzi, teeth Guizhou Province24 Bianbiandong, n/a 35 lithic artefacts Guizhou Provincesite # site name raw material faunalon map and location remains1 Jinniushan, quartz and * Liaoning Province quartzite2 Gezidong, chert * Liaoning Province3 Zhoukoudian, quartz, chert, * Locality 15 sandstone, various volcanics3 Zhoukoudian, quartz * Locality 43 Zhoukoudian, quartz and * Locality 22 quartzite4 Banjingzi, Nihewan, chert, quartzite, ? Hebei Province igneous rock5 Xujiayao Locality vein quartz, chert, * 74093, Yangyuan, igneous rock, agate, Hebei Province quartzite, metamorphic limestone5 Xujiayao Locality vein quartz, chert, * 73113, Yanggao, igneous rock, agate, Shanxi Province quartzite, metamorphic limestone6 Dingcun Locality dark hornfels, chert, * 54:90, Xiangfen, limestone, basalt, Shanxi Province quartzite6 Dingcun Locality dark hornfels * 54:93, Xiangfen, Shanxi Province6 Dingcun Locality dark hornfels, chert, * 54:94, Xiangfen, limestone, basalt, Shanxi Province quartzite6 Dingcun Locality dark hornfels, chert, * 54:95, Xiangfen, limestone, basalt, Shanxi Province quartzite6 Dingcun Locality dark hornfels, chert, * 54:96, Xiangfen, limestone, basalt, Shanxi Province quartzite6 Dingcun Locality dark hornfels, chert, * 54:97, Xiangfen, limestone, basalt, Shanxi Province quartzite6 Dingcun Locality dark hornfels, chert, * 54:98, Xiangfen, limestone, basalt, Shanxi Province quartzite6 Dingcun Locality dark hornfels, chert, * 54:99, Xiangfen, limestone, basalt, Shanxi Province quartzite6 Dingcun Locality dark hornfels, chert, * 54:100, Xiangfen, limestone, basalt, Shanxi Province quartzite6 Dingcun Locality dark hornfels, chert, * 54:102, Xiangfen, limestone, basalt, Shanxi Province quartzite6 Dingcun Locality dark hornfels, chert, * 80:01, Xiangfen, limestone, basalt, Shanxi Province quartzite7 Shicun and Jiangou, dark hornfels, chert, Dingcun, Xiangfen, limestone, basalt, Shanxi Province quartzite8 Licunxigou, Quwo, chert, quartz, sandstone, * Shanxi Province igneous rock, quartzite9 Nanliang, Houma, hornfels, quartz, chert * Shanxi Province10 Dongzaowencun, chert, quartzite * Yongji, Shanxi Province11 Gujiao, Taiyuan, dark hornfels * Shaanxi Province12 Dali, Tianshuigou, quartzite, flint, * Shaanxi Province vein quartz13 Laochihe, Lantian, quartzite, chert, * Shaanxi Province sandstone14 Yaotougou, quartz, quartzite, flint * Changwu, Shaanxi Province15 Jiangjiawan 7401, chert, quartzite, * Zhenyuan, igneous rock Gansu Province16 Sigoukou 7403, chert, quartzite, * Zhenyuan, igneous rock Gansu Province17 Zhaojiacha, ? * Qingyang, Gansu Province18 Nancun, Mianchi, ? Henan Province19 Yandunbao and quartzite, quartz, chert * Gaojiazhen, Fengdu, Sichun Province19 Gaojiazhen, Fengdu, quartzite, quartz, chert * Sichun Province20 Lianhuachishan and chert, quartzite, quartz, n/a Zulin, Zhangzhou, igneous rock Fujian Province21 Shiziyan, Maba, ? * Guangdong Province22 Xiaohuidong, quartzite, chert * Shuicheng, Guizhou Province23 Yanhuidong, chert, various volcanics, * Tongzi, siliceous limestone, Guizhou Province quartzite24 Bianbiandong, siliceous limestone, ? Guizhou Province chert, sandstoneTABLE 2. Macromammal taxon found in association with lateMiddle-early Upper Pleistocene stone tool industries innorthern and southern China. North Southfamily genera/species China ChinaPrimates archaic Homo sapiens * * Pongo sp. * Hylobates sp. *Carnivora Meles lucurus * Mustela sp. * Canis lupus * * Crocuta crocuta * Cuon sp. * * Ailuropoda sp. * Ursus arctos * Ursus kokeni * Ursus sp. * Arctonyx sp. * Vulpes sp. * Felis sp. * Panthera pardus * Panthera tigris * *Proboscidea Palaeoloxodon * cf. naumanni Palaeoloxodon sp. * Palaeoloxodon * namadicus Stegodon orientalis *Perissodactyla Equus przewalskyi * Equus hemionus * Equus sp. * Coelodonta antiquitatis * Coelodonta sp. * Rhinocerus sp. * * Megatapirus augustus * Tapirus sp. *Artiodactyla Megaloceros ordosianus * Megaloceros pachyosteus * Megaloceros sp. * Cervus elaphus * Cervus nippon grayi * Cervus sp. * Pseudaxis cf. grayi * Spirocerus sp. * Bubalus sp. * Bos primigenius * Sus scrofa * Sus cf. lydekkeri * Sus sp. * Gazella sp. * Muntiacus sp. * Capricornis * cf. sumatraensisTABLE 3. Anticipated changes in Chinese Middle Paleolithic stonetool assemblages.criteria archeological evidence from China1) introduction of new or exotic Exotic lithic raw material does lithic raw material not appear in Chinese archeological sites until the late Upper Pleistocene.2) more advanced methods of core Prior to the late Upper reduction Pleistocene, core reduction remained casual.3) more extensive, refined retouch Well-controlled and extensive retouch not present in Chinese Paleolithic until late Upper Pleistocene.4) a greater diversity of stone Through time there is a steady tool types should appear increase of stone stool types, but it is not until the late Upper Pleistocene that a sharp increase in lithic forms appear.TABLE 4. Comparison of raw numbers and percentagesof lithic per raw material from ZhoukoudianLocalities 1 and 15 (data from Gao 2000;Pei & Zhang 1985). Locality 1raw material (levels 1-3) Locality 15quartz 368 1196crystal 30 14flint 40 12sandstone 9 4igneous 9 54total 456 1280 Locality 1percentages (levels 1-3) Locality 15quartz 80.70% 93.44%crystal 6.58% 1.10%flint 8.77% 0.94%sandstone 1.97% 0.30%igneous 1.97% 4.22%total 100.00% 100.00% Acknowledgements. We would like to thank Susan Keates, John Olsen For the Australian artist John Olsen, see John Olsen (artist).John Wayne Olsen, AO was Premier of South Australia between November 28, 1996 and October 22, 2001.John Olsen was a member of the Liberal Party and Member of Parliament for more than 20 years. ,and one anonymous reviewer for constructive comments on this manuscriptat its various stages. X. Gao would like to thank the Wenner-GrenFoundation, Leakey Foundation, National Science Foundation, ChineseAcademy of Sciences' Hundred Talents Programme, the Ministry ofEducation of China for financial support during the analysis of theZhoukoudian Locality 15 lithic assemblage. 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NORTON * * Gao, Department of Paleoanthropology, Institute of VertebratePaleontology & Paleoanthropology, Academia Sinica, PO Box 643, 142Xizhimenwai Dajie, Beijing 100044, People's Republic of China.Norton, Department of Anthropology, 336a Science Building, WilliamPaterson University William Paterson University is a public university located in Wayne, New Jersey, an affluent suburb of New York City. It is set on 370 wooded acres in northeast New Jersey, the campus is located just 20 miles west of New York City. The University has 10,970 students. , Wayne NJ 07470, USA. k_s_g@hotmail.com Received 20 November 2000, resubmitted 21 May 2001, accepted 5 July2001, revised 18 October 2001