Families of children with disabilities in elementary and middle school: advocacy models and strategies.

Families of children with disabilities in elementary and middle school: advocacy models and strategies. An advocate is someone who takes up another person's cause.Families of students with disabilities have consistently advocated foreffective educational services even before the establishment of specialeducation as a formal discipline. Their efforts have resulted in manypositive outcomes, including the passage of legislation (Americans withDisabilities Act, 1990; Individuals with Disabilities Education Act This article or section is currently being developed or reviewed.Some statements may be disputed, incorrect, , biased or otherwise objectionable. of1990) and placement of children in inclusive school An inclusive school is a school that encourages special needs students and students without special needs to learn together. Therefore, students are able to learn to live together. There are some inclusive schools in the world. settings.We now recognize two important features about families of childrenwith disabilities. First, we realize that the entire family, not justthe person with a disability, needs services and supports to meet theirneeds and avoid loss of control and responsibility (Covert, 1992).Families, not professionals, should ultimately decide what specificresources and services they need.Second, we realize that the roles and needs of children withdisabilities and their family members evolve and change over time. Theelementary and middle school years present unique challenges andopportunities for the child with disabilities to learn academic skills,discover how to access a variety of settings in the community, engage insocial interactions, and develop friendships. Parents are faced with anincreasing array of professionals with whom they must work. They mayalso experience an increased need for future planning. Siblings may nowhave a brother or sister with disabilities attending their school and,perhaps, some of the same classes.Because of the dynamic and reciprocal nature of the family system(Turnbull & Turnbull, 1990), we must consider the needs of allfamily members at each stage in the life cycle. Advocacy is one vehiclethrough which the needs of the child with a disability and his or herfamily members may be met.In this article, we describe the unique needs of the child withdisabilities during the elementary and middle school years, along withthe needs of other family members. We then discuss models and methods ofadvocacy. Finally, we present some specific advocacy strategies.CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIESIN ELEMENTARY ANDMIDDLE SCHOOLSome children with disabilities are faced with needs that existthroughout the lifespan. Examples include the need for an adequateresidence, medical services, and specialized equipment. Other needs,however, are age specific and emerge as the child develops increasingphysical, intellectual, and social maturity. During the elementary andmiddle school years, these needs may be broadly categorized cat��e��go��rize?tr.v. cat��e��go��rized, cat��e��go��riz��ing, cat��e��go��riz��esTo put into a category or categories; classify.cat into fourareas:* Academic skills. * Community access. * Social skills andfriendships. * Skills necessary for the child to appropriately managesexual development and maturity.Academic NeedsAcademic skills in reading, writing, and math challenge many childrenwith disabilities for the first time in the elementary grades. Theacademic skills targeted for instruction will depend on the strengthsand weaknesses of the individual. Several authors recommend an approachto selecting academic skills for a particular student based on a carefulanalysis of the skill requisites of the natural settings in which thestudent must learn to function (Browder & Snell Snell, George 1903-1996.American geneticist. He shared a 1980 Nobel Prize for discoveries concerning cell structure that enhanced understanding of the immunological system, resulting in higher success rates in organ transplantation. , 1987;Grenot-Scheyer, Eshilian, & Falvey, 1989). The difficulty level anddegree of functionality of academic skills can be individualized in��di��vid��u��al��ize?tr.v. in��di��vid��u��al��ized, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��ing, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��es1. To give individuality to.2. To consider or treat individually; particularize.3. withinthis approach.As more and more children with disabilities are educated in inclusiveschool settings, educators are using a new approach to curriculumdevelopment (Ryndak & Alper, 1996). Teachers prioritize pri��or��i��tize?v. pri��or��i��tized, pri��or��i��tiz��ing, pri��or��i��tiz��es Usage Problemv.tr.To arrange or deal with in order of importance.v.intr. and blendskills from both the general and special education curriculum to developcurriculum for the child with a disability in the inclusive setting.Need for Community AccessThe elementary and middle school years present opportunities for thechild with a disability to gain access to an increased number ofcommunity settings. The child may now walk to school with friends orride the school bus. He or she may need to learn how to cross the streetsafely or how to behave on the school bus. The child may accompanyparents or friends on shopping and recreational trips. The communityprovides a multitude of opportunities to learn academic, social,recreational, and vocational skills.The need to learn to access the community has implications for whatskills are taught and where instruction occurs. This is particularlytrue for students who have significant difficulties in generalizingskills learned in one environment to another untrained setting. Forthese students, the skills taught are those performed in the actualcommunity setting. Direct instruction of these skills is often necessaryin the community site in which they naturally occur.Need for FriendshipsThe child's need for friends usually increases during theelementary school elementary school:see school. years as the child becomes less egocentric and morefocused on other children. The child with a disability may have to learnthe social and communication skills necessary to develop and maintainfriendships.One technique that has been effective in supporting the developmentof friendships between children with and without disabilities is the"circle of friends" (Snow & Forest, 1987). Circles offriends are networks of children that allow support, caring, andfriendship to develop. Groups of children without disabilities areallowed to decide how they will become involved with students who havedisabilities.Another support that often results in the development of genuinefriendships is the "special buddies" program (Strully &Strully, 1989). A child without disabilities is assigned to assist achild with a disability in a specific activity. The special buddies maywork together before school, at lunch, recess, after school, or during aparticular academic activity.Need for Self-Management SkillsAnother area that presents unique challenges for the child with adisability during the upper elementary and middle school years is sexualgrowth and maturity. Students with even the most severe disabilitiessexually mature. The goal is to enable students with intellectualdisabilities to manage their personal needs as they reach puberty puberty(py`bərtē), period during which the onset of sexual maturity occurs. . Manyschool districts have well-established programs directed at teachingresponsible behaviors relative to sexuality, drugs, and alcohol.Students with disabilities need this type of information provided bytheir educational team members.ISSUES FOR PARENTS DURINGTHE ELEMENTARY AND MIDDLESCHOOL YEARSAll parents are confronted with new and changing issues as theirchildren grow and mature. The specific needs and issues faced by parentsof children with disabilities will be determined by the nature of thedisability and the dynamics of the entire family system. Issues includecommunication, collaboration, time and energy expenditures, and respitecare Respite CareShort-term or temporary care of a few hours or weeks of the sick or disabled to provide relief, or respite, to the regular caregiver, usually a family member.Notes: .Communication NeedsOne issue common to all parents of children with disabilities duringthe early school years is the necessity to communicate and work with anincreasing number of educators and related services personnel. This needis particularly important today as the emphasis on inclusion dictatescollaborative teaming among parents, special and general educators, andrelated services personnel (Rainforth, York, & Macdonald, 1992;Turnbull & Turnbull, 1990).The need for effective parent/professional communication andcollaboration is underscored by a survey of families of children withdisabilities in New Hampshire New Hampshire,one of the New England states of the NE United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts (S), Vermont, with the Connecticut R. forming the boundary (W), the Canadian province of Quebec (NW), and Maine and a short strip of the Atlantic Ocean (E). (Covert, 1992). More than half of the 78families interviewed indicated they had resorted to either due processhearings or court proceedings to obtain needed services. Further, thesefamilies identified an "us versus them" atmosphere as aserious impediment A disability or obstruction that prevents an individual from entering into a contract.Infancy, for example, is an impediment in making certain contracts. Impediments to marriage include such factors as consanguinity between the parties or an earlier marriage that is still valid. to communication and collaboration withprofessionals.Need for Support in Extracurricular ActivitiesAs the child progresses through elementary and middle school, thenumber of extracurricular activities increases. Opportunities may becomeavailable to participate in sports, arts and music, drama, Boy Scoutsand Girl Scouts Girl Scouts,recreational and service organization founded (1912) in Savannah, Ga., by Mrs. Juliette Gordon Low (1860–1927). It was originally modeled after the Boy Scouts and Girl Guides, organizations created in Great Britain by Sir Robert Baden-Powell during , and a host of other activities. Since these activitiescan increase opportunity for social interaction and friendships, as wellas skill development, many parents desire participation for their childwith a disability.There are at least three difficulties associated with extracurricularactivities for children with disabilities. First, as many families havediscovered, some school districts restrict access to these activitiesfor children who have learning, behavioral, or physical healthchallenges. Second, while many parents welcome opportunities for theirchildren to participate in the same after-school activities as studentswithout disabilities, new problems may occur in regard to scheduling andtransportation. Third, in many cases it is the parents who must expend ex��pend?tr.v. ex��pend��ed, ex��pend��ing, ex��pends1. To lay out; spend: expending tax revenues on government operations.See Synonyms at spend.2. time and energy to integrate these activities by serving as theorganizers and leaders of scout troops, recreational activities, churchgroups, and so on.Need for Economic SupportsAs the child with a disability grows, the physical demands placed onparents may increase. This is particularly true for parents of a childwith a physical or health-related disability. The time and physicalenergy required for positioning, toileting, bathing, eating, anddressing may place an additional burden on parents and other familymembers. It is often the case that one parent, usually the mother, dropsout of the labor force to provide care. This situation can lead tosocial isolation for the parent and reduced income for the family.Particularly for those parents caring for a you youngster withsignificant health-related problems, the cost of medical services maybebeyond family resources. Insurance may not be available, provide onlylimited coverage, or be cost prohibitive pro��hib��i��tive? also pro��hib��i��to��ryadj.1. Prohibiting; forbidding: took prohibitive measures.2. .Need for Respite CareThe time and energy required to care for a child with major healthproblems in the home can be exhausting, can create stress, and can leadto the use (or wish) for respite services. But the quality of respiteservices, degree of availability, and cost varies across states as wellas within regions of the same state (Covert, 1992). A range of optionsfor respite care needs to be available and tailored to the individualneeds of families.Need for Information About the FutureFinally, parents are faced with a growing need for information thatcan assist in planning for the future of their child with a disability.Particularly during the middle school years, many families begin toexplore options available during and after high school for vocationaltraining, supported living Supported living is the term given by local authorities in the UK to encompass a range of services designed to help disabled citizens retain their independence in their local community.Previously, housing and support were usually provided by a charity or local council. , and social and economic security of theirchild. This task is complicated and can generate anxiety because theadult service system is often fragmented. Secondary-aged students andadults with disabilities may experience a need for services fromagencies such as Vocational Rehabilitation rehabilitation:see physical therapy. , Mental Health, andDevelopmental Disabilities. Only when these agencies are wellcoordinated and provide all services in the local community willparental anxiety diminish over the future for their son or daughter witha disability. Learning how to access and coordinate postschool servicesbecomes a major, ongoing task for many parents.SIBLINGS OF CHILDRENWITH DISABILITIESSiblings play a crucial role in the life of a child with adisability. They can serve as models of appropriate behaviors. Theyoften serve as invaluable assistants and coaches in completingday-to-day routines. They can be marvelous playmates. And they canintroduce their brother or sister with a disability to other children.Roles of SiblingsMcLoughlin and Senn (1994) discussed roles and needs of siblings withschool-age brothers and sisters who have a disability. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. these authors, children with school-age siblings with disabilities havea primary need for information. Peers, teachers, and others may ask themquestions about disability. They may be expected to become activelyinvolved in the educational program of the child with a disability. Somechildren may feel embarrassed about the physical appearance or learningdifficulties of their brother or sister. They may need information onhow to handle these feelings. Information is also needed on how tohandle instances of teasing teasingthe act of parading a male before a female to see if she displays estrus, and is therefore in a state where mating is likely to be fertile. by other children. Day-to-day care takingneeds may increase for the child with a disability in elementary andmiddle school. As demands are increasingly placed on parents by job andfamily responsibilities, siblings - particularly older females - may beasked to fulfill some of these needs if day care and baby sitters arenot affordable for the family (McLoughlin & Senn, 1994).Needs of SiblingsMcLoughlin and Senn (1994) suggested providing direct and factualinformation to siblings of children with disabilities. Teaching siblingsskills (e.g., physical positioning, behavior management behavior managementPsychology Any nonpharmacologic maneuver–eg contingency reinforcement–that is intended to correct behavioral problems in a child with a mental disorder–eg, ADHD. See Attention-deficit-hyperactivity syndrome. , communicationtechniques) that help them manage the disability of their brother orsister is helpful. Emotional support for the sibling may be provided byfamily members, professionals, or peer support groups. Finally, the needfor autonomy and individuality must be respected for siblings ofchildren with disabilities.Covert (1992) recommended several options that could benefit siblingsof children with disabilities, as well as their parents. These included:* Increased integration in all community-based activities. * Respiteoptions that would reduce the burden of care provided by family members.* Increased financial resources through discretionary funding or cashsubsidies that would give family members more control in meeting theirneeds.THE NEED FOR ADVOCACYAll members of the family of a child with disabilities play multipleroles. These roles include nurturing are giver, observer, team memberand decision maker, tutor, learner, counselor, and advocate. Inaddition, each family member has the right to be just an ordinaryperson. As the child with a disability grows, family members willsometimes need the assistance of professional advocates. They will alsoneed to learn to be effective advocates for the family member with adisability and for themselves.In the following sections we address models and methods of advocacy.Advocacy strategies hat can assist families during the elementary andmiddle school years are presented.MODELS AND METHODSOF ADVOCACYAdvocacy as a Dynamic ProcessAdvocacy can focus on a broad range of objectives. Advocacy can alsobe initiated by a range of people concerned for the child or youth.Possibly our earliest advocates are health care professionals.Physicians' encouragement of parents to engage in Proper prenatalcare prenatal care,n the health care provided the mother and fetus before childbirth. is a critical form of advocacy. Decisions to avoid alcohol duringpregnancy, follow a proper diet, exercise, and so on are all made onbehalf of the unborn child.During and shortly after birth, health care providers advocate forproper infant care. Encouraging proper hygiene, nutrition, clothing, andstimulation, are also objectives of advocacy. Family members, such asgrandparents and spouses, have traditionally been major advocates forinfants. Increasingly, social service providers advocate for properprenatal prenatal/pre��na��tal/ (-na��tal) preceding birth. pre��na��taladj.Preceding birth. Also called antenatal.prenatalpreceding birth. and infant care.As the child gets older, the locus of advocacy shifts from medicalcare to social learning. Family members advocate for educational andsocial opportunities, such as day care or special therapy programs, thatwill prepare the child for preschool. Increasingly, child carespecialists provide consultative support for family members.When the child reaches school age, educational agencies and personneladvocate on behalf of the child. Parents also advocate for appropriateeducational assessments, correct classification, placement in leastrestrictive settings, ancillary services needed to ensure educationalprogress, and so on.For the first time, advocates on behalf of the child havecomprehensive federal legislation establishing the rights of the childand family, as well as responsibilities of educational providers.Federal law also provides for a nationwide network of professionaladvocates who work on behalf of people with disabilities and theirfamilies. Specifically, the Developmental Disabilities Assistance andBill of Rights Act of 1973 and amendments provide states with basicgrants for legal advocacy through a designated agency referred to as"protection and advocacy."When the student enters intermediate and secondary school, the focusof advocacy typically shifts to promoting community integration andtransition. Again, federal law articulates specific responsibilities forschools to ensure successful transition to postsecondary serviceproviders, supported or independent employment, supported or independentliving, and so on.Advocacy as a Lifelong NeedOf course, the need for advocacy does not end with a person'sgraduation from school. We all need the support and guidance ofknowledgeable people throughout our lives. Most adults benefit fromadvocacy from clergy, civic leaders, family members, lawyers, andothers.Advocacy is a dynamic and continuous process. It begins when werecognize that conception has occurred and does not end until lifeitself ends. Principal advocates include professionals, family members,friends, and self. Similarly, the methods of advocacy vary from beinghighly structured and formal, as in the case of court proceedings, tobeing highly flexible and informal, as in the case of advice given byfriends.LEVELS OF ADVOCACYWe have emphasized the range of advocates and advocacy goals tocorrect the often mistaken notion that advocacy is synonymous with synonymous withadjective equivalent to, the same as, identical to, similar to, identified with, equal to, tantamount to, interchangeable with, one and the same as professional support during a formal hearing. Based on ourconceptualization con��cep��tu��al��ize?v. con��cep��tu��al��ized, con��cep��tu��al��iz��ing, con��cep��tu��al��iz��esv.tr.To form a concept or concepts of, and especially to interpret in a conceptual way: , advocacy occurs any time people speak or act onbehalf themselves or others. The consent decree A settlement of a lawsuit or criminal case in which a person or company agrees to take specific actions without admitting fault or guilt for the situation that led to the lawsuit.A consent decree is a settlement that is contained in a court order. resulting from thePennhurst Case in 1981 may be a major advocacy landmark for people whoare institutionalized in��sti��tu��tion��al��ize?tr.v. in��sti��tu��tion��al��ized, in��sti��tu��tion��al��iz��ing, in��sti��tu��tion��al��iz��es1. a. To make into, treat as, or give the character of an institution to.b. . However, the lives of most people withdisabilities have been enriched to a greater degree by kind words andactions of family, friends, and teachers.An unfortunate corollary corollary:see theorem. to the preceding principle is that formalmethods of advocacy, including use of the hearing process, may be lesseffective than informal methods. The adversarial ad��ver��sar��i��al?adj.Relating to or characteristic of an adversary; involving antagonistic elements: "the chasm between management and labor in this country, an often needlessly adversarial . . . nature of due processhearings or other quasi-legal proceedings may jeopardize jeop��ard��ize?tr.v. jeop��ard��ized, jeop��ard��iz��ing, jeop��ard��izesTo expose to loss or injury; imperil. See Synonyms at endanger. workingrelationships between the people whose cooperation is essential to thestudent's welfare. Although formal due process hearings may benecessary in some situations, less intrusive advocacy methods should beexhausted in serving the student's best interests.Therefore, we have conceptualized four classes of advocacy that rangefrom being highly informal and laissez-faire to highly prescriptive pre��scrip��tive?adj.1. Sanctioned or authorized by long-standing custom or usage.2. Making or giving injunctions, directions, laws, or rules.3. Law Acquired by or based on uninterrupted possession. andconfrontational. They include self-advocacy, social support advocacy,interpersonal advocacy, and legal advocacy. We encourage family members,professionals, and others to always be aware of opportunities to improvethe quality of educational services through self-advocacy and socialsupport. Interpersonal advocacy follows when more general social supportmethods fail to promote optimum learning opportunities. Legal advocacyis reserved for use as a last resort when self-advocacy, social supportmethods, and inter-personal interactions are ineffective. The mostefficient of these is self-advocacy.Self-advocacyA special case of advocacy that may have the most generalized andlasting impact on the person with a disability is self-advocacy.Self-advocacy occurs any time people speak or act on their own behalf toimprove their quality of life.Herr (1983) described self-advocacy as includingconsciousness-raising, assertiveness assertiveness/as��ser��tive��ness/ (ah-ser��tiv-nes) the quality or state of bold or confident self-expression, neither aggressive nor submissive. , and consumer action. Singer andApolloni (1981) identified self-advocacy as the most basic form ofself-assertion to gain rights or protect liberties. They emphasized thateven the most disadvantaged person can learn basic ways of communicatingneeds and preferences.The importance of self-advocacy is highlighted by self-advocacytraining groups such as People First and Partners in Policy Making.These groups include people who share a common condition or problem.Professionals may support the group by serving as a catalyst orfacilitator and by providing resources not available to members of thegroup (Rhoades, Browning, & Thorin, 1986).Self-advocacy procedures suggested by Rogers (1988) include assistinga person to clarify and prioritize his or her goals. Once targets areestablished, the individual is encouraged to develop a rational set ofprocedures for attaining the goals. He or she is then encouraged tomethodically me��thod��i��cal? also me��thod��icadj.1. Arranged or proceeding in regular, systematic order.2. Characterized by ordered and systematic habits or behavior. See Synonyms at orderly. act on these procedures. Finally, the person is encouragedto evaluate the consequences of engaging in the procedures.Apolloni (1984) emphasized that self-advocacy occurs within a cycle.He argued as follows:There is no end to the process of self-advocacy.Self-advocates must reassess reassessVerbto reconsider the value or importance ofreassessment nVerb 1. reassess - revise or renew one's assessmentreevaluate their needs and theservices available to meet their needs on an ongoingbasis. Each stage in the person's developmentpotentially means new needs, newdecision-makers to influence, and new follow-upvisits. Being a truly effective self-advocate is notan easy task! It demands tenacity and perseverance PerseveranceSee also Determination.Ainsworthredid dictionary manuscript burnt in fire. [Br. Hist.: Brewer Handbook, 752]Call of the Wild, Thedogs trail steadfastly through Alaska’s tundra. [Am. Lit. ....Irritants make pearls. (p. 4)McLoughlin and Senn (1994) pointed out that siblings of children withdisabilities can learn to be powerful self-advocates, as well asadvocates for their brother or sister. These authors suggested thatsiblings be encouraged to Identify their own needs and feelings aboutdisability. Siblings can learn communication skills with which toexpress their needs and teach others about disability. Self-advocacyskills can be learned in childhood (Turnbull & Turnbull, 1990)through activities such as play, informal conversations, role-playing,videotaping, and peer support groups. As the child grows older,participation in individualized education program In the United States an Individualized Education Program, commonly referred to as an IEP, is mandated by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). In Canada an equivalent document is called an Individual Education Plan. (IEP IEPIn currencies, this is the abbreviation for the Irish Punt.Notes:The currency market, also known as the Foreign Exchange market, is the largest financial market in the world, with a daily average volume of over US $1 trillion. ) meetings canincrease, thus promoting more opportunities to use self-advocacy skills.Social Support AdvocacyWe stated earlier that advocacy occurs any time people speak or acton behalf of themselves or others. Social support advocacy, alsoreferred to as "citizen advocacy" (Ward, 1986), is a commonmeans of promoting the general interests of self or others. It occurswithout reference to specific goals for a specific individual. Examplesof social support advocacy include campaigning for school boardcandidates who are supportive of inclusive education, providingdisability awareness experiences for students without disabilities, andteaching about human rights and the value of diversity.Social support advocacy is rarely a formal activity and is easilycharacterized as the "good will" that human beings extend toone another. Social support advocates work as much to improve communityattitudes as to improve specific living conditions living conditionsnpl → condiciones fpl de vidaliving conditionsnpl → conditions fpl de vieliving conditionsliving and services. Ifsocial support advocacy were practiced extensively, more formal anddirective advocacy methods would not be required. Buildings would beaccessible because of basic social interest equity. Schools wouldpractice inclusion because of cultural standards that encouraged fullparticipation of all members, and so on.Aside from working with schools and community agencies, socialsupport advocacy can occur through friendship or protege pro��t����g��?n.One whose welfare, training, or career is promoted by an influential person.[French, from past participle of prot��ger, to protect, from Old French, from Latin relationshipsestablished with people who have disabilities. As noted by Snellen(1979), practical guidance can be provided in the form of advice andinformal instruction. The protege and friend can also aid by providingemotional support as the person with disabilities faces life'schallenges.Widrick, Hasazi, and Hasazi (1990) have highlighted the importance ofsocial support advocacy. They reviewed literature that indicates thebeneficial effect of general social support in the form of friendshipsand co-worker acceptance.An important source of social support advocacy during elementary andmiddle school years can be found in the natural supports within theschool environment. Jorgensen (1992, p. 182) described natural supportsfor school-aged children as "people, materials, and curricula -that are customarily provided for students without identifiededucational disabilities." Examples in an elementary school mightinclude differential expectations for performance based on individualability, cooperative learning cooperative learningEducation theory A student-centered teaching strategy in which heterogeneous groups of students work to achieve a common academic goal–eg, completing a case study or a evaluating a QC problem. See Problem-based learning, Socratic method. groups, peer tutoring, policies that makeextracurricular activities open to all children, and attendance centersbased on place of residence rather than ability level.Unfortunately, social support advocacy is insufficient to address theindividual needs of all students with disabilities. Inequities oftenneed to be addressed on a student-by-student and objective-by-objectivebasis. The next level of advocacy is the starting point Noun 1. starting point - earliest limiting pointterminus a quocommencement, get-go, offset, outset, showtime, starting time, beginning, start, kickoff, first - the time at which something is supposed to begin; "they got an early start"; "she knew from the for this action.Interpersonal AdvocacyThis form of advocacy involves direct interactions by family members,professionals, or others on behalf of the child or youth withdisabilities. Interpersonal advocacy generally follows from arecognition of limitations of the general social system. It can occurthrough infrequent in��fre��quent?adj.1. Not occurring regularly; occasional or rare: an infrequent guest.2. interactions between the advocate and provider, suchas when a parent calls the principal before the first day of school toensure that his or her child has proper transportation. It may alsooccur through ongoing, informal interactions that serve to address minorproblems before they grow into major problems. Some teachers and parentscommunicate frequently by sending a notebook to and from school.The most common forums for interpersonal advocacy are parent-teachermeetings and IEP staffings. These occasions allow family members andprofessionals to meet for the purpose of planning future educationalexperiences and reviewing the effectiveness of past educationalexperiences (Turnbull, Strickland, & Brantley, 1982). As notedpreviously, however, while annual meetings are important, they may notbe effective in preventing minor problems.Hines (1986) described five essential steps for effectiveinterpersonal advocacy, as follows:1. Analyzing the problem. Family members or other advocatesprioritize the problems and select those needing immediate attention.Time-lines may be established for addressing less critical problems. 2.Collecting information. People or organizations responsible for makingchanges or providing assistance are identified. 3. Action planning.Procedures for resolving the problem are developed in cooperation withassociated people or organizations. 4. Assertiveness. Maintain adignified and productive working relationship while emphasizing the needfor change. 5. Follow-up. Maintain contact with individuals and agenciesinvolved in resolving the problem so that commitments are met.Interpersonal advocacy may include a single objective, such asobtaining an interpreter for a child with hearing impairments. Morelikely, it will focus on a broader goal, composed of short-termobjectives. In this case, the goal may be to increase participation ininclusive settings. The short-term objectives may include obtaining aninterpreter, teaching peers and teachers to sign, obtaining alternativecommunication technology, and so on.Orchestrating advocacy to include both long-term goals and short-termobjectives is important to minimize strain on the system and increasechances for success. It is well recognized that systems are extremelyresistant to change. People generally like to do things the way theyhave been done. Effort to change routines produces anxiety. Working onone objective at a time provides an opportunity for the system to changegradually. It has the effect of allowing people to become comfortablewith modest changes before more substantial changes are introduced.Obviously, effective communication is critical for the success ofinterpersonal advocacy. Schloss and Jayne (1994) identified seven stepsthat can increase interpersonal effectiveness and avoid confrontation:1. Develop a positive relationship with the other party. 2. Beprepared for all meetings. 3. Thoroughly understand all proposals andjustifications presented. 4. Be confident that your proposal isunderstood. 5. Explore all possible solutions to the issue. 6. Identifyall alternatives that are acceptable. 7. Request assistance from others.Interpersonal advocacy, like social support advocacy, may not beeffective in all instances. Legitimate differences sometimes existbetween providers and family members, even when all have the bestinterests of the child in mind. Therefore, a more formal process isrequired to adjudicate adjudicate (jōō´dikāt´),v differences. Legal advocacy, as termed here, isbased directly on the due process provisions of federal law.Legal advocacyFederal and state laws provide a strong foundation from which therights of people with disabilities can be assured. Specific rightsaddressed in federal law and most frequently addressed by advocatesinclude the following:* Review educational records. * Refuse disclosure of records toothers. * Remove inaccurate records. * Notice prior to assessment. *Notice prior to change in educational program. * Provide consent forevaluation, classification, or placement. * Comprehensive case studyevaluation. * Reevaluation every 3 years or when warranted. *Independent evaluation when district evaluation is questioned. *Education in the least restrictive environment As part of the U.S. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, the least restrictive environment is identified as one of the six principles that govern the education of students with disabilities. . * Receive supportservices support servicesPsychology Non-health care-related ancillary services–eg, transportation, financial aid, support groups, homemaker services, respite services, and other services needed to ensure success in inclusive settings. * Participationwith peers without disabilities in nonacademic activities.Federal and state law also prescribe formal recourse for legaladvocacy. Specifically, family members have the right to request animpartial due process hearing if they believe that any of the precedingrights have been violated. During the hearing, they have the right toretain their child in the current placement. They have the right to beinformed of procedures for initiating the due process hearing, as wellas being informed of the availability of free or low-cost advocacy/legalcouncil. Family members have the right to have their dispute settled byan independent hearing officer within a public forum. They have theright to present evidence and cross examine school officials andwitnesses. They are entitled to obtain a list of potential witnessesprior to the proceedings and are entitled to a transcript of theproceedings, including findings. Finally, they have the right to appealto the state court system.As may be apparent from these legislative foundations, legal advocacyand interpersonal advocacy share the common goal of promoting theinterests of individual students. It may also be noted that methods andforums for legal advocacy are much more prescriptive. Specifically,legal advocacy begins when less formal interpersonal advocacy falls.Legal advocacy can be initiated at any point when parents and schoolpersonnel are unable to reach agreement on any of the matters citedabove. When an agreement is not reached, the family members may requesta due process hearing. During the hearing, family members and schoolpersonnel formally present their positions to an impartial hearingofficer or panel. In most cases, school personnel and family members arerepresented by council. All are entitled to present evidence and expertwitnesses. Both parties are entitled to cross examine witnesses. Thejudgment of the hearing officer or panel is binding unless the family orschool appeals, the ruling to a state hearing (in most states). Bothsides are entitled to appeal the state ruling within the court system.Social support, interpersonal, and legal advocacy are closelyrelated. Family members and concerned citizens should work together toensure that the general needs of all people with disabilities are met.When the general social system does not support the needs of anindividual, interpersonal advocacy is used. Specifically, family membersand others indicate specific changes that should be made in theinterests of the child or youth. When interpersonal interactions areineffective in promoting change, legal advocacy becomes the method oflast resort.CONCLUSIONHistorically, people have advocated for appropriate services forpeople with disabilities. Major changes have occurred in promoting civilrights, free and appropriate public education, rehabilitationprogramming, and nondiscriminatory housing. These changes might not haveoccurred if a specific unmet need had not been identified for anindividual.Advocacy is a dynamic and continuous process. As stated earlier, itbegins upon recognition of an unmet need and does not end until thatneed is met. Neufeld (1980) compared advocacy to a huge onion:No matter how many layers are stripped away,there always seems to be another layer. . . . Aperson attempting to strip away the bureaucratic bu��reau��crat?n.1. An official of a bureaucracy.2. An official who is rigidly devoted to the details of administrative procedure.bu layers is likely to be driven to tears before an accountableagent is found. (National Paralegal paralegaln. a non-lawyer who performs routine tasks requiring some knowledge of the law and procedures, employed by a law office or who works free-lance as an independent for various lawyers. Institute,1980)In advocacy, the dynamic process works in two directions at the sametime. As an advocate supports and proposes new strategies to meet anindividual student's needs, the advocate's work might also beapplied and supportive of large numbers of children, thus promotingchange across the system.For example, a parent might advocate for the inclusion of his or herchild in the regular classroom with appropriate supports and services.The advocacy efforts prevail, and the child is placed as requested. Thissituation might then be used as a precedent in advocating for moreinclusionary placements in that school or community - or possibly intestimony in the development or reauthorization of state or federallegislation. Advocacy can be a two-way street, with benefits for allconcerned.REFERENCESAmericans with Disabilities Act, P.L. 101-336. (1990). 42 U.S.C.12101, et seq et seq.(et seek) n. abbreviation for the Latin phrase et sequentes meaning "and the following." It is commonly used by lawyers to include numbered lists, pages or sections after the first number is stated, as in "the rules of the road are found in Vehicle Code : Federal Register, 56(144), 35544-35756. Apolloni, T.(1984, November). Self-advocacy: How to be a winner. NationalInformation Center for Handicapped Children and Youth Newsletter, 1-4.Browder, D. M., & Snell, M. E. (1987). Functional academics. In M.E. Snell (Ed.), Systematic instruction of students with severe handicaps(3rd ed., pp. 436-468). Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill Charles Edward Merrill (October 19, 1885 – October 6 1956) was a philanthropist, stockbroker and one of the founders of Merrill Lynch & Company. Early yearsCharles E. Merrill, the son of physician Dr. . Covert, S. B.(1992). Supporting families. In J. Nisbet (Ed.), Natural supports inschool at work, and in the community for people with severe disabilities(pp. 121-163). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Developmental DisabilitiesAssistance and Bill of Rights Act, P.L. 95-602, and amendments. (1973)U.S. Code 1988, Title 42 [subsection subsectionNounany of the smaller parts into which a section may be dividedNoun 1. subsection - a section of a section; a part of a part; i.e. ] 6000, 6001, 6006, 6008 et seq.Grenot-Scheyer, M., Eshilian, L., & Falvey, M. (1989) functionalacademic skills. In M. Falvey (Ed.), Community based curriculum:Instructional strategies for students with severe disabilities (pp.285-320). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Herr, S. (1983). Rights andadvocacy for retarded re��tard��ed?adj.1. Often Offensive Affected with mental retardation.2. Occurring or developing later than desired or expected; delayed. people. Toronto: Lexington. Hines, M. (1986). Apractical guide to advocacy. Lifetime planning manual 1984-85. Lansing,MI: Michigan State Department of Mental Health. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. ED 266 831) Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Act, P.L. 101-476. (1990). 20 U.S.C. 1400, et seq. Jorgensen,C. M. (1992). Natural supports in inclusive schools: Curricular andteaching strategies. In J. Nisbet (Ed.), Natural supports in school atwork, and in the community for people with disabilities (pp. 179-215).Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. McLoughlin, J. A., & Senn, C. (1994).Siblings of children with disabilities. In S. Alper, P. J. Schloss,& C. N. Schloss (Eds.), Families of students with disabilities:Consultation and advocacy (pp. 95-122). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.National Paralegal Institute. (1980). Mental health advocacy The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject.Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page. trainingkit: Introduction to mental health advocacy. Washington, DC: Author.Neufeld, G. R. (1980). Advocacy and the human service delivery system.In Mental health advocacy training kit: Introduction to mental healthadvocacy. Washington, DC: National Paralegal Institute. Pennhurst StateSchool v. Halderman, Civil Action Nos. 79-1404, 79-1414, 79-1415,79-1489, U.S. Third Circuit Court of Appeals (1981). Rainforth, B.,York, J., & MacDonald, C. (1992). Collaborative teams for studentswith disabilities. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Rhoades, C., Browning,P., & Thorin, E. (1986). Self-help advocacy movement: A promisingpeer-support system for people with mental disabilities. RehabilitationLiterature, 47(1-2), 2-7. Rogers, J. (1988). Individual advocacy.Philadelphia: National Mental Health Consumers' Association.Ryndak, D. L., & Alper, S. (1996). Curriculum content for studentswith moderate and severe disabilities in inclusive settings. Boston:Allyn & Bacon. Schloss, C. N., & Jayne, D. (1994). Models andmethods of advocacy. In S. Alper, P. J. Schloss, & C. N. Schloss(Eds.), Families of students with disabilities: Consultation andadvocacy (pp. 229-250). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Singer, G., &Apolloni, T. (1981). Successful living. Understanding Californians withspecial developmental needs. Sacramento: California State Council onDevelopmental Disabilities. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED227-605) Snellen, D. (1979). Mental retardation mental retardation,below average level of intellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in the skills necessary for daily living. : Nature, needs, andadvocacy. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Snow, J., & Forest, M. (1987).Circles. In M. Forest (Ed.), More education integration. Downsview,Ontario: G. Allan Roeher Institute. Strully, J. L., & Strully, C. F.(1989). Family support to promote integration. In S. Stainback, W.Stainback, & M. Forest (Eds.), Educating students in the mainstreamof education (pp. 213-219). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Turnbull, A. P.,Strickland, B. B., & Brantley, J. C. (1982). Developing andimplementing individualized education programs. Columbus, OH: Merrill.Turnbull, A. P., & Turnbull, H. R., II. (1990). Families,professionals, and exceptionality: A special partnership (2nd ed).Columbus, OH: Merrill. Ward, J. (1986). Citizen advocacy: Its legalcontext. Australia and New Zealand New Zealand(zē`lənd), island country (2005 est. pop. 4,035,000), 104,454 sq mi (270,534 sq km), in the S Pacific Ocean, over 1,000 mi (1,600 km) SE of Australia. The capital is Wellington; the largest city and leading port is Auckland. Journal of DevelopmentalDisabilities, 12(2), 91-96. Widrick, G., Hasazi, J., Hasazi, S. (1990).Citizen advocacy relationships: Advocate, protege, and relationshipcharacteristics and satisfaction ratings. The Journal of the Associationfor Persons with Severe Handicaps, 15(3), 170-176.SANDRA ALPER (CEC (Central Electronic Complex) The set of hardware that defines a mainframe, which includes the CPU(s), memory, channels, controllers and power supplies included in the box. Some CECs, such as IBM's Multiprise 2000 and 3000, include data storage devices as well. #88), Professor and Head, Department of SpecialEducation, University of Northern Iowa The University of Northern Iowa, in Cedar Falls, Iowa, was founded in 1876, as the Iowa State Normal School. It has colleges of Business Administration, Education, Humanities and Fine Arts, Natural Sciences, and Social and Behavioral Sciences, and a graduate school. , Cedar Falls Cedar Falls,city (1990 pop. 34,298), Black Hawk co., N Iowa, on the Cedar River; inc. 1854. It developed as a milling center in the late 19th-century after the coming of the railroad; its name is derived from the cedar tree. . PATRICK J. SCHLOSS(CEC #89), Assistant Vice President for Graduate Studies and Research;and CYNTHIA N. SCHLOSS (CEC #365), Assistant Professor, Department ofCommunication Disorders and Special Education, Bloomsburg University ofPennsylvania Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, commonly referred to as Bloomsburg, BU, or Bloom is a public university located in Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania. It is one of the 14 state universities that compose the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education (PASSHE). , Bloomsburg.