Fishing in Port Jackson, New South Wales

Fishing in Port Jackson, New South Wales - more than met the eye. Contemporary diaries and the water-colours of artists such as the'Port Jackson Painter' vividly tell of Aboriginal life whenthe first Fleet in 1788 settled its cargo of convicts in Australia.Fishing was important around the waters of Port Jackson Port Jacksonor Sydney Harbour,inlet of the Pacific Ocean, 22 sq mi (57 sq km), 12 mi (19 km) long and 1.5 mi (2.4 km) wide at its mouth, New South Wales, Australia, forming Australia's finest harbor. The Parramatta River forms its western arm. , whoseAboriginal inhabitants are recorded to have used the techniques ofspear-fishing and angling. Were other methods also used? Fish remainsfrom a shell midden middendungheap. provide an opportunity to investigate.In prehistoric studies historical descriptions are often used tointerpret the archaeological record The archaeological record is a term used in archaeology to denote all archaeological evidence, including the physical remains of past human activities which archaeologists seek out and record in an attempt to analyze and reconstruct the past. of an area; usually those of thearea in which the archaeological site or sites occur are used, butsometimes those of another environmentally similar region (Binford 1983:25-6; Lampert 1971a: 62-4; 1971b: 116-18; 1988: 43; Meehan & Jones1988; Poiner 1976: 197; Spaulding 1968:37-9). Historical descriptionsare also seen as portraying the most recent 'traditional'phase in the cultural succession of the original inhabitants of acolonized region, i.e. how the people lived before their culture wasimpacted upon by the colonizers. Some researchers have been critical ofthe use of ethnographic and ethno-historical sources to extrapolate extrapolate - extrapolation backinto the distant past to interpret archaeological evidence (Meehan &Jones 1988).This article focuses on fishing methods used in Port Jackson, andassesses the documentary and archaeological evidence for the type ofequipment that Aboriginal people used to catch fish. This issue arose aspart of a larger project about the role of marine and land resources Noun 1. land resources - natural resources in the form of arable landnatural resource, natural resources - resources (actual and potential) supplied by nature inthe diet and material culture of the Aboriginal people of Port Jackson(Attenbrow 1991).This article questions the reliability of the First Fleet historicalrecords, but at the same time indicates that both documentary andarchaeological sources provide essential evidence and both may benecessary to produce a valid picture of what happened at contact andwhat changes may have occurred in the past.Port Jackson historical descriptionsIn the earliest historical records for Port Jackson (those of theFirst Fleet diarists and artists), fishing is the most frequentlymentioned subsistence activity of the local Aboriginal people. Only twomethods are described and illustrated: spear-fishing and angling. FirstFleet documents state that spear-fishing was undertaken by men usingmulti-pronged spears (often called 'fizz-gigs' or'gigs') from the rocky shores as well as from bark canoes andin shallow waters. Angling (or line-fishing) was carried out by womenwho fished from canoes using shell hooks and lines in deep water(Bradley 1786-1793 [1969]: 133; Collins 1798 [1975]: 461; HR.NSW NSWNew South WalesNoun 1. NSW - the agency that provides units to conduct unconventional and counter-guerilla warfareNaval Special Warfare 1893[1978]: 309; Hunter 1793 [1968: 63]; Tench 1979: 210,285-7 [1793: 96,193-6]; Worgan 1788 [1978]: 16, 37; see also Lawrence 1968: 143-7,195-6). The gender division in fishing was not absolute and Tench (1979:287 [1793: 195]), for example, noted that: 'women sometimes use thegig, and always carry one in each canoe, to strike large fish which maybe hooked, and thereby facilitate the capture'. The only referenceto men using hooks and lines is Govett's (1837: 7-8) some 50 yearsafter contact; as Bowdler (1976: 253) points out, by that time Europeanfishing tackle was being given to the Aborigines aborigines:see Australian aborigines. and Govett'sdescription is of an Aboriginal person using European fishing tackle.The few references to nets in Port Jackson suggest they were not usedto catch fish: Stockdale (1789 [1950]: 136-7) describes a 'smallnet' which 'appears to have been used either as a landing net,or for the purpose of carrying the fish when taken' and 'smallhoop nets in which they catch lobsters, and sea crayfish' (see alsoHR.NSW 1893 [1978]: 132). Tench (1979: 47 [1789: 79]) refers to'small nets, in which they put the fish they catch'. Thedimensions of these 'small' nets are not given. Seine-fishingwith large nets and other methods of fishing (e.g. weirs and fishtraps), as far as the historical records are concerned, do not appear tohave been used in the Sydney region at contact (Lawrence 1968: 144-7).Fish traps of stone or brush are not mentioned at all.This picture of spear-fishing and angling being the only methods thatthe Aboriginal people of Port Jackson used to catch fish has continuedto be repeated in recent descriptions of Aboriginal life for the Sydneydistrict (Kohen For other meanings, see Cohen (disambiguation).A kohen (or cohen, Hebrew כּהן, "priest", pl. כּהנִים, kohanim or cohanim 1993: 23; Kohen & Lampert 1987: 352-4; Lampert 1988;Lampert & Konecny 1989; Lampert & Megaw 1979: 67-8; Turbet 1989:53-6).Evidence from other parts of the NSW coastIn other parts of Australia historical and ethnographic accountsdescribe a wide range of fishing methods: not only spear-fishing andangling, but also tidal weirs and traps, communal drives and a varietyof nets and poisons (Bowdler 1976: 249-50; Happ 1977; Lawrence 1968).Archaeological evidence (e.g. stone fish traps and the size of fishrepresented in excavated faunal assemblages) has also been used toindicate prehistoric fishing methods.Documentary and archaeological evidence for the NSW north and southcoasts indicate that in addition to line- and spear-fishing, the methodsdescribed below were also used to catch fish, particularly in tidal andestuarine es��tu��a��rine?adj.1. Of, relating to, or found in an estuary.2. Geology Formed or deposited in an estuary.Adj. 1. estuarine - of or relating to or found in estuariesestuarial situations.Documentary evidence A type of written proof that is offered at a trial to establish the existence or nonexistence of a fact that is in dispute.Letters, contracts, deeds, licenses, certificates, tickets, or other writings are documentary evidence. To the north and south of Port Jackson, the use of poisons as well asbrush and stone weirs or traps have been described (Attenbrow 1976;Brayshaw 1986: 77; Campbell 1978: 122-34; Coleman 1982: 5-6, figure 9;Enright 1935: 8-9; Lampert & Sanders 1973: table 2; Lawrence 1968:146-7, table 7; Robinson 1844: 233-4; Robinson in Mackaness 1941: 336;Vinnicombe 1980: V: 2). South of Port Jackson, the historicallydescribed weirs were all made of brush; no stone traps are described forthat region.Fishing nets were used on the NSW north coast (McBryde 1974: 12-13),and in the Hunter Valley Hunter Valley,region of New South Wales, SE Australia. The Hunter River and its tributaries occupy this valley S of the Mt. Royal Range. The land in the upper valley is used for livestock grazing, dairying and agriculture. , near Newcastle, hand nets were used in shallowwater See: Shallow water blackout Waves and shallow water Shallow water equations Shallow Water, Kansas (Brayshaw 1986: 77). However, indisputable references to thepre-contact use of fishing nets by Aboriginal people have not been foundfor the NSW south coast (Sullivan 1982: 54). A drawing by Brierly(1842-44) shows a bark canoe at Twofold Bay with what appears to be anet, but this dates from the early 1840s when the whaling station waswell established and the net could be a European item.Archaeological evidenceArchaeological evidence from other parts of the NSW coast[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED] comes in two forms:1 stone-built fish traps2 excavated fish remains.Several stone-built fish traps have been reported [ILLUSTRATION FORFIGURE 1 OMITTED]. All of the stone-built tidal fish traps are north ofPort Jackson (Campbell 1978: 122-34; Coleman 1982: 5-6, figure 9;Enright 1935: 8-9; NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service AboriginalSites Register). The two tidal traps nearest Port Jackson are south ofNewcastle. At Norah Head is said to have been a double fish trap A fishtrap is a trap resembling a fishing weir or a lobster trap. It consists of a frame of thick steel wire, usually in the shape of a heart, with chicken wire stretched around it. The mesh wraps around the frame and then tapers into the inside of the trap. ,destroyed when a swimming pool was built. The other is in theinter-tidal zone of a small tributary of Broken Bay, where a series ofrocks 'appears to have been arranged purposefully' 'andform a loose arrangement of enclosure' [sic] (NSW National Parksand Wildlife Service Aboriginal Sites Register). A stone-built fish trapwas also reported in the freshwater reaches of the Nepean River The Nepean River is a river in the coastal region of New South Wales, Australia. GeographyThe headwaters of the Nepean River rise near Robertson, about 100 kilometres south of Sydney and about 15 kilometres from the coast. atCastlereagh (McCarthy 1948: figure 1; Sim in Campbell 1978: 122).Analysis of excavated fish remains from coastal archaeological sitesto the north of Port Jackson (Macleay estuary and Barrenjoey peninsula)and on the NSW south coast (Pambula) suggest that in those coastal areastraps and/or nets were used in addition to spear-fishing and angling(Coleman 1980: 73; Sullivan 1982: 240-41; 1984: 12; Wood 1989: 65-70;1992: 173).Historical and archaeological evidence from these adjacent areas thussupports the view that tidal traps, and possibly nets, are likely tohave been used in Port Jackson (cf. Lawrence (1968: 147).Port Jackson archaeological evidenceThe Port Jackson archaeological fish assemblage used for this studycomes from a shell midden in a rock-shelter called Mt Trefle (Attenbrow1992a; 1992b). The rock-shelter is typical of the Port Jackson area,small to medium-sized measuring 20 m x 5 m in area, with a maximumheight of 1.9 m [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 2 OMITTED]. Shell midden hasaccumulated within the rock-shelter and extends down the slope in frontof the shelter for about 8 m.The rock-shelter is not far from the harbour mouth on a forestedsandstone ridge-side [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED] about 30-35 mabove sea level and c. 175 m from the shoreline. The local shorelinewithin a kilometre of the site includes extensive rock platforms, smallsandy beaches and bays. A deep-water channel and shallow bay-waters areclose by.The excavated depositsThe excavated trench, 1.75 sq m in area, included deposits bothinside and outside the rock-shelter [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 2 OMITTED].Within the shelter the midden is shallow (=/[less than]30 cm), anddirectly overlies sandstone bedrock. The bedrock drops down sharplybeneath the dripline, and outside the shelter the deposit is c. 70 cmdeep.The excavated deposits contained shell, stone artefacts, bone andcharcoal in varying quantities, The inside deposits consist ofrelatively well-defined layers of dry, firm to very firm sandy sedimentsranging in colour from buff to brown and grey-brown, An ashy ash��y?adj. ash��i��er, ash��i��est1. Of, relating to, or covered with ashes.2. Having the color of ashes; pale.ash hearth areawas revealed in Level 2 in Square Ad. The inside deposits are rich inshell but contain relatively little charcoal. The outside deposits arehomogeneous, very dark brown (almost black), sandy sediment rich incharcoal throughout the 70 cm depth. The density of shell is much lowerthan in the inside squares, except for two shallow concentrations ofhairy mussel mussel,edible freshwater or marine bivalve mollusk. Mussels are able to move slowly by means of the muscular foot. They feed and breathe by filtering water through extensible tubes called siphons; a large mussel filters 10 gal (38 liters) of water per day. (Trichomya hirsuta).Stratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat layers inside and outside the shelter cannot becorrelated because of differences in their depth and nature of theirdeposits, and the stratigraphic discontinuity beneath the dripline. Datafor both areas are thus presented separately (TABLES 2 & 3).Excavation units inside the shelter have been grouped into threeanalytical levels based on the stratigraphy stratigraphy,branch of geology specifically concerned with the arrangement of layered rocks (see stratification). Stratigraphy is based on the law of superposition, which states that in a normal sequence of rock layers the youngest is on top and the oldest on the . Outside the shelter 11analytical levels were established based on the spits, Excavationmethods are described in Attenbrow (1992a), but it is relevant to notehere that nested 7-mm and 3-mm meshes were used to sieve the deposits,and that materials retained in the 3-mm sieves were sorted underlaboratory conditions.Radiocarbon dates and length of Aboriginal occupationRadiocarbon dates (TABLE 1) indicate that occupation of the sitebegan around 1300 years ago and continued until the contact period.Aboriginal people may have continued to use Mt Trefle rock-shelter inthe immediate post-contact period as Aboriginal groups continued to livein the South Head area until 1819 at least (Murray 1909). However,artefactual adj. 1. of or pertaining to an artefact.2. made by human actions.Adj. 1. artefactual - of or relating to artifactsartifactual evidence to support this proposal has not been identified inthe site.The faunal assemblage Faunal Assemblage is the archaeological or paleontological term for a group of associated animal fossils found together in a given stratum.The principle of faunal succession is used in biostratigraphy to determine each biostratigraphic unit, or biozone. The fish remains analysed for this study are only part of the faunalassemblage from Mt Trefle which includes shell and crustacea, as well asbone from terrestrial mammals, birds [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 1 OMITTED]and reptiles. The bone was not evenly distributed throughout theexcavated deposit, and both cultural and non-cultural processescontributed to its vertical and horizontal distribution (Steele 1992:13-19). Outside the shelter, though there are noticeable'peaks' in the occurrence of fish bone in Levels 5 and 7(TABLE 2), an overall decrease in fish bone with depth (particularlyevident in Levels 9-11) corresponds with an increase in the proportionof burnt bone. This distribution pattern suggests that more bone wasoriginally present in the lower levels of the deposit and the presentpattern is due to preservational factors.The total bone assemblage comprises 16,224 pieces of whole andfragmented bone with a total weight of 371 g. Much of the faunalassemblage is highly fragmented and approximately 40% by weight isunidentified fragments (10,577, weighing 150 g). Few bones exceed 5 cmin maximum dimension, and most were retrieved from the 3-mm sieve. Evenwhole bones are small in size.The small size of the fragmented bone is likely to have resulted fromthe nature of the occupation and/or site maintenance activities in thearea excavated. Large and obtrusive refuse may have been eitherdiscarded elsewhere or removed from the area excavated. However, thesmallness of the fragments and the fact they appear to have been reducedto a stable size is commensurate with assemblages commonly found inareas which have been the focus of activity (Schiffer 1987: 129). Thearea excavated was in the optimum habitable habitableadj. referring to a residence that is safe and can be occupied in reasonable comfort. Although standards vary by region, the premises should be closed in against the weather, provide running water, access to decent toilets and bathing facilities, heating, area of the shelter whichwould have received maximum treadage and use. Scavengers appear to havecontrifuted little to the accumulation, fragmentation and spatialconfiguration of the sample (Steele 1992: 14-15).TABLE 2. Mt Trefle. Distribution of fish bone according to level. proportion density of total bone weight (g/kg of assemblagelevel (g) deposit) % (weight)outside1 7.82 0.09 21.32 14.12 0.16 30.83 7.97 0.21 29.04 8.23 0.21 22.15 13.09 0.31 42.56 2.34 0.06 15.27 14.05 0.30 33.18 5.83 0.09 26.59 1.58 0.02 26.910 0.67 0.02 43.511 0.02 [less than]0.01 6.1total 75.72inside1 41.07 1.78 67.12 7.27 0.32 34.53 8.60 1.02 37.9total 56.94site total 132.66 35.8inside: Aa, Ab, Ad, Ba, Bb (surf, 1 east, 2-4)outside: Bb (1 west, 5-8), Bc, Bd, Ca, CbThe fish assemblageThe identified fish species are listed in TABLE 3.Quantification and determination of abundanceQuantifying and determining the abundance of faunal remains in asite, whether for the total assemblage or individual species, is oftendifficult (Colley 1990: 217-18). Often a single [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE3 OMITTED] measure will not provide a figure suitable for comparing theabundance of one taxa or species with another. In this article, weightand number of identified specimens The Number of Identified Specimens, or NISP, is used by archaeologists when counting bones from a site. NISP counts each bone and fragment as a unit. The total NISP equals the total possible number of individuals. (NISP NISP National Industrial Symbiosis Programme (UK)NISP National Industrial Security ProgramNISP Neutron Instrument Simulation PackageNISP National Individual Security ProgramNISP Nutrition Services Incentive Program ) are used to measure therelative frequencies of taxa and of skeletal elements within each taxa.These two measures were considered appropriate primarily because much ofthe assemblage was highly fragmented (cf. Wood 1992: 154).The fish remains consist of 5254 whole and fragmented bones weighing133 g(1) (TABLE 2). They comprise 36% by weight, 32.5% by count and 92%by NISP of the bone assemblage, and are a significant component of theidentified faunal remains (approximately 60% by weight).The identified fish remains consist of 304 skeletal elements (almost6% of the fish component by number) which were identified to taxa orspecies level wherever possible. The wide number of species identified(TABLE 3) suggests that fish played an important part in the economy ofthe site's inhabitants.Remains belonging to the family Sparidae (snapper snapper,name for members of the Lutianidae, a family of spiny-finned food and game fishes found chiefly in tropical coastal waters. Snappers are carnivorous, active, and voracious, with large mouths and sharp teeth. Most species travel in dense schools. , bream bream:see sunfish. breamEuropean food and game fish (Abramis brama) of the carp family (Cyprinidae). Found in lakes and slow rivers, the bream lives in schools and eats worms, mollusks, and other small animals. andtarwhine) dominate the identified fish component (76% by NISP; TABLE 3),with snapper (52% NISP) being the most frequently identified. Snapper ispossibly over-represented because of the large number of loose molarswhich were identified in comparison to other skeletal elements. Bonesfrom leatherjacket leath��er��jack��et?n.1. A silvery blue fish (Oligoplites saurus) of Atlantic waters, having leathery skin, yellow fins, and five spines on the anal fin.2. and wrasse wrasse(răs), common name for a member of the large family Labridae, brilliantly colored fishes found among rocks and kelp in tropical seas. represent the bulk of the remainingidentified specimens. Leather-jacket was identified exclusively upondorsal spine fragments. The remaining fish species, which includeflathead, whiting, groper and mulloway, are represented by only a smallnumber of specimens. Other fish species which inhabit Port Jackson (e.g.garfish garfish:see gar; needlefish. , mullet) may be absent due to the fragility of their skeletonsand differential preservation factors rather than the fact they were noteaten.Differential survival, or the small size of the identified componentin some levels, may account for the difference in particular fishcategories between excavation contexts inside and outside the shelter(TABLE 3).[TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 4 OMITTED]Ascertaining fishing methodsOur approach in investigating fishing methods used in Port Jackson isbased on the view that certain fishing methods and strategies result inthe capture of fish of particular species and/or particular sizes (TABLE4). Leach (1979), Balme (1983: 24), Colley & Jones (1987) and Colley(1990: 218-22) previously used this approach to infer prehistoricfishing methods or the use of particular types of fishing gear fromexcavated fish bone assemblages. Inferences are based on the estimatedsize and age range (derived from selected skeletal elements in areference collection - see below) and the known habitat of the fish(Balme 1983; Bowdler 1970; 1976; Coleman 1980; Colley 1983; Coutts 1975:270 in Colley 1990; Kefous 1977 in Coleman 1980; Sullivan 1984: 240-41;Wheeler & Jones in Shackley 1981: 185-6; Wood 1989; 1992: 167-8).Making inferences upon such data is not straightforward. Coleman(1980), Colley (1987; 1990: 222) and Owen & Merrick (1994a) questionsuch methods. Coleman and Colley are critical because 'differentfishing methods often produce a similar catch composition, and dependingon when and where it is used, the same fishing gear may produce adifferent catch.'Owen & Merrick (1994a: 15), in contradiction to the anticipatedcatch characteristics set out in TABLE 4, believe that nets and trapswould be non-selective in terms of species captured, spearing would bemost selective of all methods, and angling semi-selective. However,their discussion on size selectivity is limited to the use of fishhooks.We acknowledge that problems exist with this approach, but considerour conclusions are valid since we have not attempted to be too specificin our inferences.Age structure and habitatsThe age structure of fish populations in different habitats dependsupon factors such as the growth rate and breeding patterns of individualspecies as well as the degree of predation predationForm of food getting in which one animal, the predator, eats an animal of another species, the prey, immediately after killing it or, in some cases, while it is still alive. Most predators are generalists; they eat a variety of prey species. (including fishing byhumans). The following information on fish species in the Mt Trefleassemblage illustrates this point.Snapper, Pagrus auratus Pagrus auratusfinfish in family Sparidae. Called also snapper, red sea bream. See Table 23. , change their behaviour and preferred habitataccording to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. age (Roughley 1961: 77-8). Young (sexually immature)snapper (referred to as 'cockneys' and 'red bream')tend to school in age classes in shallower estuarine waters and bayswhere they feed and grow before moving out into deeper offshore waters.Sexually mature snapper are essentially bottom-dwelling fish andgenerally solitary; they occur in greatest numbers over rocky reefs andon shell or gravel bottoms. At sexual maturity snapper are approximately230 mm standard length (State Pollution Commission 1981: 108).Mulloway, Sciaena antarctica, are found in rivers up to and beyondthe tidal limit; when schooling they congregate near estuary mouths andpass beyond into the surf zone surf zonen.See breaker zone.surf zoneSee breaker zone.The area of water from the surf line to the beach. See also surf line. of coastal beaches (Roughley 1961: 70).Yellowtail kingfish The yellowtail kingfish or southern kingfish, Seriola lalandi lalandi, is a subspecies of yellowtail amberjack, a jack of the genus Seriola, found off south eastern Australia and the north east coast of the North Island of New Zealand. , Seriola lalandi, observed in both offshore watersand estuaries, are frequently caught about rocky headlands and reefs, inthe surf zone, and in estuaries and sheltered bays (Roughley 1961: 54).Eastern blue groper, Achoerodus viridus, generally restricted to oceanforeshores, are commonly caught around rocky coastal reefs and headlands(Roughley 1961: 102; Thomson 1978: 117).Numerous species of leatherjacket (Monacanthidae), wrasse (Labridae)and cod (Serranidae) occur along the NSW central coast and it was notpossible to identify these remains more specifically. Leatherjackets,wrasse and cod inhabit both offshore and estuarine waters in a varietyof habitats. Tarwhine, Rhabdosargus sarba, are also found in bothestuarine and offshore waters, but large tarwhine seldom enter theestuaries (Thomson 1978: 96).Of the remaining fish species identified within the Mt Trefleassemblage, the majority are largely estuarine in habitat (such asyellow fin bream, Acanthopagrus australis) and/or prefer shallow waterconditions (e.g. dusky flathead Dusky flathead (Platycephalus fuscus) (literally translating from Ancient Greek as "flat-head dusky") are a large predatory fish and the largest member of the Platycephalidae family. , Platycephalus fuscus, and sand whiting The Sand whiting, Sillago ciliata, (also known as the Summer whiting or Blue-nose whiting) is a common species of coastal marine fish of the family Sillaginidae, the smelt-whitings. ,Sillago ciliata). Yellowfin bream, with slow growth rates Growth RatesThe compounded annualized rate of growth of a company's revenues, earnings, dividends, or other figures.Notes:Remember, historically high growth rates don't always mean a high rate of growth looking into the future. , are sexuallymature when about 210-230 mm long (4 years old). They are found incoastal and estuarine waters but can inhabit estuaries throughout theirlife cycle; as bottom feeders, they move about the creeks and rivers inscattered shoals (Roughley 1961: 823). Sand whiting and dusky flatheadare both adapted to life on the bottom and inhabit shallow waters oversand-flats (Roughley 1961: 46, 132, 136-7). Sand whiting inhabitsand-flats and sandy channels near estuary mouths and periodically thesurf zone. Spawning appears to occur near estuary mouths and the surfzone during summer (Roughley 1961: 46). Dusky flathead move in thesummer months from the creeks and upstream flats towards the estuarymouth to spawn (Roughley 1961: 136).Estimating fish size and age ranges for the Mt Trefle assemblageAnalytical methods usedIndividual fish are usually sized by comparing selected bonemeasurements from archaeological specimens with measurements fromreference collection specimens (Casteel 1976; Owen 1984; Owen &Merrick 1994b; Shackley 1981: 182-4). In our study, the size and agerange of the fish-in the faunal assemblage were calculated usingcomparative data from previous studies.Few detailed studies of comparative collections have examined therelationship between bone size and fish length for species commonlyidentified from Australian coastal archaeological sites. Relevantstudies have focused on snapper (Bowdler 1970; Owen 1984; Owen &Merrick 1994b; Wood 1989; 1992; see details below), though some data areavailable for bream and flathead (Bowdler 1970; Coleman 1980).Owen (1984: 18, table 10; Owen & Merrick (1994b: 5)) recorded 22standard measurements on a suite of snapper (Pagrus auratus) bones usinga reference collection of 42 individuals graded for an even size-range.Statistical methods tested which bones were the best predictor of fishsize (length) and produced the standard estimate of error in eachprediction. Owen (1984: 24) demonstrated that each of the bonemeasurements she used has a high correlation with fish length.Coleman (1980) provides comparative data for bream supra-occipitalsand flathead dentaries, but no bream supra-occipitals were identified inthe Mt Trefle assemblage, and the few flathead dentaries are toofragmentary to use for estimating fish length with accuracy. A number ofdiagnostic skeletal elements (particularly otoliths) from other fishspecies are complete enough to allow measurement, but comparative datafor these species were not available (Serranidae, Labridae,Platycephalus fuscus, Pseudolabrus tetricus, Rhabdosargus sarba, Sciaenaantarctica, Sillago ciliata, Sillago sp.).Our analysis and discussion therefore concentrate on the dominantportion of the Mt Trefle identified sample: snapper and, to a lesserextent, bream.[TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 5 OMITTED]Snapper (Pagrus auratus)The three most commonly occurring skeletal elements were measured:dentaries, pre-maxillae and supra-occipitals. The level of integrity ofthe skeletal elements included in the analysis (complete or slightdamage), the measurement used (breadth, height, length, process length),as well as the measurements recorded for each skeletal element, and thederived estimates of standard fish length for each are provided in TABLE5.Size estimations calculated for snapper specimens are based on Owen(1984) and Owen & Merrick (1994b). Wherever possible, twomeasurements were recorded for each specimen: for dentary Den´ta`rya. 1. (Anat.) Pertaining to, or bearing, teeth. , length (L)and height (H); for pre-maxillae, process length (PL) and length (L) ;for supra-occipital, process length (PL) and breadth (B). This procedureenables two independent estimates of standard fish length (SL) to begained from the one bone, and minimizes the loss of information throughdamage. It was possible to calculate two estimates of fish length foronly a few specimens. Where only a single calculation for a specimenwith minor damage was made, care was taken to ensure the specimen had nomissing bone portions. Measurements were recorded using digitalcallipers Cal`li`persn. pl. 1. See Calipers.callipers, calipers (US) npl (MED) → aparato ortop��dico;(MATH) → calibrador min millimetres to two decimal places, according to themethods, locations and orientations illustrated by Owen (1984: 18,plates 2-6, figure 3; Owen & Merrick 1994b: figure 1). Estimates ofstandard fish length were calculated using the formula Y = a + bx inconjunction with the data provided by Owen from the referencecollection, where Y is standard fish length, a is the constant, b theexponent and x the bone measurement (Owen 1984; Owen & Merrick1994b: 5).Bream (Acanthopagrus australis)Data for a single sexually mature and relatively large black bream Noun 1. black bream - important dark-colored edible food and game fish of AustraliaChrysophrys australissea bream, bream - any of numerous marine percoid fishes especially (but not exclusively) of the family Sparidae reference specimen with a gutted weight of 450 g and a fork length of320 mm are provided by Bowdler (1970). Length of the teeth-bearingsurfaces of the pre-maxilia and dentary measured 24 mm and 25 mmrespectively. Length estimates based on a single reference specimen arestatistically unsatisfactory (Owen 1984; Owen & Merrick 1994b).However, comparison of Bowdler's values, the information on thesize of bream at sexual maturity, and measurements recorded for twobream dentary in the Mt Trefle assemblage (TABLE 5) allows someassessment of the general size of the fish from which the Mt Trefledentaries derive.ResultsEstimated fish lengths for the Mt Trefle snapper range from 66 mm to550 mm. Two distinct size groupings are apparent: 66 mm-289 mm (27estimates); 413 mm-550 mm (6 estimates) [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 3OMITTED]. Most length estimates in the first group (24 out of 27) areunder 230 mm and may be considered sexually immature fish. In addition,many of the fragmentary snapper elements not suitable for metrical met��ri��cal?adj.1. Of, relating to, or composed in poetic meter: metrical verse; five metrical units in a line.2. Of or relating to measurement. analysis could be seen to come from small individuals.Mt Trefle bream elements appear, in general, to derive fromindividuals less than 320 mm in length, and to be mostly small, sexuallyimmature individuals (i.e. [less than]230 mm). They closely parallel thesmaller size range (150 mm-250 mm) of bream encountered by Coleman(1980).The diminutive size of the sparid jaw elements not identified beyonda family level complement the evidence provided by the estimated sizerange for snapper and bream: the Mt Trefle fish assemblage is dominatedby a high frequency of small juvenile fish of the family Sparidae.The small and sexually immature individuals in Mt Trefle normallyinhabit, and hence are more likely to be caught in, shallow waterestuarine habitats. The remainder of the assemblage supports theconclusion that these fish came largely from estuarine environments.Wrasse and groper, a minor component of the assemblage, as well asadult snapper, perhaps reflect the proximity of the shelter to theharbour mouth or rocky reefs such as nearby Bottle and Glass Point.Comparative studiesWood's (1989: 65-70, 1992: 167-8) analysis showed that theAngophora Reserve snapper remains were dominated by the bones of smaller([less than]280 mm in length) juvenile fish. In comparison, Owen's(1984; Owen & Merrick 1994a) re-analysis of the Bass Point andCurrarong fish remains indicate a more restricted and larger size rangethan those from either Mt Trefle or Angophora Reserve. Snapper from BassPoint Upper Midden range in size between 161 mm and 551 mm, while thosefrom the pre-fish hook levels range between 180 mm and 556 mm. Analysisof variance shows no significant size difference between snapper in theUpper Midden and those in pre-fish-hook levels (Owen 1984: 44). The meansize of snapper in the Currarong shelters varies between 335 mm and 412mm in Shelter 1 and 278 and 499 mm in Shelter 2, with most being between300 mm and 400 mm long (Owen 1984: 46, 60, 84).The pattern at Currarong and Bass Point suggest that the majority offish were adults. However, judging the proportion of adult to juvenileindividuals in Bass Point and Currarong in relation to the proportionsin Mt Trefle and Angophora Reserve is made difficult by the differentmesh size in the sieves used at each site. At Mt Trefle and AngophoraReserve 3-mm mesh was used, but at Bass Point 3/16-inch (4.8-mm) mesh(Bowdler 1970: 34, 78). The mesh used at Currarong, not reported, wasprobably the same as at Burrill Lake - 3/16-inch (4.8 mm) (Lampert 1971:7).Inferred fishing methodsThe size of fish sought, as well as the behaviour and preferredhabitat of each species, is likely to have played a significant role inthe fishing methods used by Mt Trefle's inhabitants, especially forfish such as snapper whose behaviour and preferred habitat change withage.Lampert (1988: 43) considers that the predominant species in some ofthe NSW central and south coast sites can be correlated with fishingmethods and gender divisions: '... women caught most snapper fromcanoes with their long lines In communications, circuits that are capable of handling transmissions over long distances. , while men took mainly bream using theirspears either from canoes or from the shore'.Radiocarbon dates for the deposits (TABLE 1) show that the site wasoccupied during the period when fish-hooks were in use along the NSWsouth coast (i.e. the last 800 years, Sullivan 1987: 98). Neither fishhooks nor stone files were retrieved during the excavations, but anumber of Turbo torquata shell fragments which may derive from fish-hookmanufacture and two bone unipoints were found in Levels 1, 2 and 3(Attenbrow 1992: 14; Fullagar & Szpak 1992: 5; specimens 142, 143,145-152). We believe spears and line-fishing were used principally tocatch the minor component of adult and/or deeper water fish in the MtTrefle assemblage.According to TABLE 4, the Mt Trefle fish remains do not match theanticipated catch characteristics for spear- or line-fishing with theirsize selection towards larger fish. The Mt Trefle assemblage has a widerange of species and is characterized by numerous small sexuallyimmature individuals (especially sparids), which inhabit shallowsheltered estuarine waters. The assemblage strongly suggests tidal trapsor some form of net were used in addition to spears and line-fishing. Itis probable that fish were also collected from tidal rock pools (Dyall1982: 58; Vinnicombe 1980: V: 3).Discussion and conclusionsThe foregoing discussions relate to fish remains from one site, MtTrefle, on the shores of Port Jackson. Previously excavated Port Jacksonmiddens either contained very little fish bone or were excavated at atime when such evidence was not systematically retrieved. The Mt Treflefish remains are thus the first assemblage available for Port Jackson onwhich size estimates can be based.Conclusions based on the analysis of the Mt Trefle assemblage raisedoubts about the reliability of the First Fleet records to provide afull description of the fishing methods used in Port Jackson prior toand/or at contact.Archaeological evidence and historical documents both provideinformation about the past. Each set of information is formed in adifferent way and may portray different aspects of human behaviour;neither has primacy over the other (Knapp 1992: 2). Neither can be takenat face value and each needs interpreting and assessing for biases sothat valid descriptions of a past culture may be portrayed. In manyinstances, historical documents are accepted as portraying a morecomplete picture than the archaeological evidence. In this case,however, the archaeological evidence questions the reliability of thehistorical descriptions, suggesting they are incomplete about aparticular aspect of Aboriginal life.It is probable that some small fish were caught with spears andfish-hooks even though the intent may have been to catch large matureindividuals. Still, the dominance of small, juvenile individuals in theMt Trefle assemblage suggests a wider range of fishing methods was usedin Port Jackson than described in the historic records, i.e. that tidaltraps or nets were used as well as spears and hooks and lines.If large fishing nets (e.g. drum or fixed gill nets, or seine nets)were used in Port Jackson, surely the British settlers would have seenthem lying in the Aboriginal campsites or being carried about, even ifthey had not seen them being used. It is possible that large nets werenot used in Port Jackson because of its generally deep waters "Deep Waters" is a short story by P. G. Wodehouse, which first appeared in the United States in the March 25 1910 issue of Collier's Weekly, and in the United Kingdom in the June 1910 issue of the Strand. and therelatively small number and size of the areas of shallow water whichoccur. It is also possible that large nets had been used in the past,but their use had ceased shortly before contact. However, our preferredexplanations are that:* the small nets referred to in the historical accounts, e.g. scoopnets, were used for catching fish in shallow waters as well as landingand carrying them; and/or* tidal traps, weirs and rock pools were used. If tidal traps andweirs were used they may not have survived for very long aftertraditional fishing activities ceased if many (or all?) were built ofperishable organic materials such as wood, branches and/or brush. Ifbuilt of stone, they may not have survived recent human activities orthe rough seas of southeastern Australia. Yet the question remains, whywas the use or presence of such traps or weirs not reported in thehistorical accounts of Port Jackson?It may be that the use of traps and weirs was not observed by theearly settlers, as they were used infrequently and/or they were built inmore closed and less visible estuarine and bay settings, e.g. on smallbeaches or at the tidal mouths of small streams running into the estuarywhere a dense tree canopy often exists. Lack of visibility has also beenput forward for the scarce historical references to some otheractivities, for example, collecting plant foods and hunting landanimals. Many women's activities (except fishing in canoes on theharbour) may have had very low visibility as much of the plant andshellfish gathering would have taken place away from the area of(British) settlement (Bowdler 1976: 253), and hunting land animals maysimply have been less visible in timbered landscapes than fishing onopen estuarine waters (Lampert 1971a: 63; Attenbrow 1988: 47; McDonald1992: 135). Collecting fish caught in tidal traps or rock pools may havebeen embedded within women's shellfish gathering activities.However, men may have also collected fish from pools when they werespear-fishing from rock platforms.Another factor that may affect 'visibility' or what iswritten is the perception of the observer or recorder as to what isnormal or unusual, or expected. The First Fleet diarists were nottrained ethnographers and, except for descriptions made duringCook's earlier visit (Beaglehole 1955), were not familiar with theindigenous culture of the land they were colonizing. Although GovernorPhillip was asked to ensure descriptions of the Aboriginal people andtheir customs were reported to the English administrators, theobservations were usually made during the course of the officers'normal activities. Records by such writers are therefore likely to bebiased or incomplete because of such things as the times and places ofthe observations, the preconceived ideas of the observer or recorder,the fact that the indigenous people only showed certain aspects of theirculture to the colonizers or did not show themselves at certain times orin certain situations.However, assessing the First Fleet records for their biases andomissions and the reasons for them is beyond the scope of this presentarticle.Acknowledgements. We gratefully acknowledge funding provided by theAustralian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Torres Strait(tŏr`ĭz, –rĭs), channel, c.95 mi (153 km) wide, between New Guinea and Cape York Peninsula of Australia. It connects the Arafura and Coral seas. Islander Studies,Canberra. We also wish to thank members of the Australian Museum'sIchthyology ichthyologythe study of fishes. Department, particularly John Paxton For the United States Marine Corps general, see John M. Paxton, Jr.. John Paxton (1911 - 1985) was an American screenwriter (May 21, 1911, Kansas City, Missouri - January 5, 1985, Santa Monica, California). , Mark McGrouther andTom Trnski, for their help and advice in identifications and access totheir collections. We wish to thank Sarah Colley, Margrit Koettig andRobin Torrence for their comments on drafts of this article, as well asthe unnamed 'Port Jackson referee'. We also wish to thank themany volunteers who assisted in the fieldwork and analysis, particularlyFrank Sinn and Cheryl Szpak. Advice and help received at all levels wasvery much appreciated.1 The low weight of the bone assemblage should not be taken as anindication that the sample size was too small to make valid statements.The number of bones and fragments (5254) is a better indication of thesize of the assemblage. The weight of the bone reflects the fact thatfish bones are extremely light and indicates that, indeed, theassemblage contains the bones of a large number of very small fish.ReferencesATTENBROW, V.J. 1976. Aboriginal subsistence economy A subsistence economy is an economy in which a group generally obtains the necessities of life, but do not attempt to accumulate wealth. In such a system, a concept of wealth does not exist, and only minimal surpluses generally are created, therefore there is a reliance on renewal on the far southcoast of New South Wales New South Wales,state (1991 pop. 5,164,549), 309,443 sq mi (801,457 sq km), SE Australia. It is bounded on the E by the Pacific Ocean. 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