Flint and pyrite: making fire in the Stone Age.

Flint and pyrite: making fire in the Stone Age. Introduction The domestication domesticationProcess of hereditary reorganization of wild animals and plants into forms more accommodating to the interests of people. In its strictest sense, it refers to the initial stage of human mastery of wild animals and plants. of fire must be ranked among the key`revolutions' in prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to . The sociologist Goudsblom (1992) hasdrawn attention to the fact that of the main attributes of`civilization' -- tool-use, language and control of fire -- onlyone, control of fire, is beyond dispute exclusively human. Manypublications have discussed the use and production of fire inprehistoric and historical times (to name a few important ones: Hough n. 1. Same as Hock, a joint.v. t. 1. Same as Hock, to hamstring.[imp. & p. p. os> Houghedr>;p. pr. & vb. n. os> Houghing.]n. 1. An adz; a hoe.v. t. 1. To cut with a hoe. 1926; 1928; Birket-Smith 1929; Harrison 1958; Oakley 1955; Perles 1977;Pyne 1995; Collina-Girard 1998). Many authors have suggested two stagesin the domestication of fire: the `age of fire used' and the `ageof fire kindled' (after Frazer 1930). We do not know when ways toproduce fire were first invented, but it is reasonable to assume thatpeople knew how to make fire since the moment that hearths are a regularphenomenon on prehistoric sites; this is the case since the MiddlePalaeolithic. Archaeological evidence points to an increasing importance of thehearth in the daily life of small groups of people since the beginningof the last glacial. The Upper Palaeolithic hearth not only attractedmany activities in which fire or heat was functional, but also played animportant role in social life. The evolution of a simple language to acomplex one, involving abstract concepts, may have been spurred by dailygatherings around the fire, where stories were told and ritualsperformed. The characteristically `modern' pattern consisting ofdense rings of artefacts of various kinds around hearths, as observed atmany Upper Palaeolithic sites (see e.g. Olive & Taborin 1989;Stapert 1992), seems to be largely absent in older periods. It is in anycase remarkable that hearths in `socialized' contexts are found inlarge numbers since the beginning of the Upper Palaeolithic. Reliable knowledge about fire-making equipment from thePalaeolithic is hardly available. When studying material from UpperPalaeolithic sites in Holland, Denmark and Germany, dating from the LateGlacial, we noted `tools' of a type hardly noticed before: flintimplements (Archæol.) tools, etc., employed by men before the use of metals, such as axes, arrows, spears, knives, wedges, etc., which were commonly made of flint, but also of granite, jade, jasper, and other hard stones.See also: Flint with a markedly rounded end (Johansen & Stapert 1995).These strongly reminded us of similarly rounded objects from theNeolithic and the Bronze Age Bronze Age,period in the development of technology when metals were first used regularly in the manufacture of tools and weapons. Pure copper and bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, were used indiscriminately at first; this early period is sometimes called the . Many sites from the latter periodscontained rounded flints, often together with pyrites. Ethnographicalsources indicate that flint and pyrite pyrite(pī`rīt)or iron pyrites(pīrī`tēz, pə–, pī`rīts), pale brass-yellow mineral, the bisulfide of iron, FeS2. were used in combination toproduce fire. Therefore, rounded implements from the Neolithic andBronze Age have been interpreted as strike-a-lights by Evans (1872: 284)and other authors. In this paper we suggest that at least some roundedtools from the Upper Palaeolithic served the same purpose. Two ways of making fire From ethnographical sources we know that two basic ways to producefire exist, both with many variations: 1 friction of wood on wood, 2 percussion or friction of stone on stone. With both techniques, the produced sparks or glowing wood particlesare caught in material that will easily smoulder smoul��der?v. & n.Variant of smolder.smoulderor US smolderVerb1. to burn slowly without flames, usually giving off smoke2. . Though many materialsare suitable for this purpose, one of the best seems to be the driedinside of Fomes fomentarius Fomes fomentarius (formerly Ungulina fomentaria or Polyporus fomentarius) is a bracket fungus often named horse's hoof fungus or tinder fungus. It can be found in North America and Europe, typically on birch, but also on beech. , a fungus growing on old or diseased trees.When a piece of fungus has begun smouldering it is used to set fire tosome easily ignited material (e.g. thin rolls of birch bark). Frictionof wood against wood can be achieved in many ways. Some well-knownimplements are the fire-drill (often involving a bow), the fire-saw andthe fire-plough. Among the Australian Aborigines aborigines:see Australian aborigines. , men sometimes usedtheir shield (soft wood) and spear-thrower (hard wood) together for thispurpose (Spencer & Gillen 1904). In this paper we shall be mainly concerned with the techniqueinvolving percussion or friction of stone on stone. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Perles(1977: 33) it is possible to produce fire by striking flint on flint,but this does not work (Oakley 1955; Collin et al. 1991). It iscertainly possible to produce fire by striking two pyrites together, asdone by several groups of Inuit (Parry 1824: 504). By far the mostcommon technique, however, is to strike, or forcefully rub, a flint toolagainst a piece of pyrite. Pyrite and related minerals such as marcasite marcasite(mär`kəsīt)or white iron pyrites,a mineral closely resembling and having the same chemical composition (FeS2) as pyrite. consist of iron and sulphur (mostly Fe[S.sub.2]), though other elements(such as copper) may also occur. These minerals produce quite hot andrelatively long-lived sparks when struck by a flint. Pyrite may occur inthe form of large crystals, but is found more often as concretions inlimestone or clay. Pyrites can be collected on cliff beaches of Denmark,France and England, but may also be found in secondary deposits such asmoraines. Pyrite easily decomposes in the sandy soils of the NorthEuropean Plain. In such situations only the `strike-a-light',consisting of flint, will survive archaeologically. In historical times, the wood-on-wood technique was much morewidely used than the pyrite method. The latter remained in useespecially in peripheral areas: by Eskimos, Aleutians, Fuegians,Aboriginal groups in southeastern Australia, and probably Tasmanians.The wood-on-wood technique was applied almost everywhere else. However,the situation further back in time, during the Stone Age, was probablythe reverse, suggesting that the pyrite technique is the older of thetwo; at the end of this paper we shall return to this question. Strike-a-lights from the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age inEurope From the prehistoric record of Europe there are many indicationsfor the use of the flint/pyrite technique, but hardly any for thewood-on-wood technique. In classical and later times, however, bothtechniques were known in Europe. Quite a large number of graves datingfrom the Neolithic or the Bronze Age contained fire-making equipment,consisting of one or several flint tools and a lump of pyrite; in rarecases also remnants of Fomes fomentarius were found. In northern Europe,sometimes the basal parts of flint daggers were used as strike-a-lights.From men's graves of the early Bronze Age in Denmark, miniatureflint daggers are known (FIGURE 1: 1-3) that were used exclusively forthis purpose (Petersen 1993: 141). [Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] From Neolithic Switzerland, several rounded flints used asstrike-a-lights, as well as several pyrites, have been found in antlerhafts (Strobel 1939: Abb. 14; Uerpmann 1981: Tafel 13). Thoughpreservation of organic materials at several Swiss sites is very good,distinct wooden tools for the production of fire have not beenidentified. Several possible fire-sticks have been reported for the siteof Seeberg Burgaschiseesud (Stabe: Muller-Beck 1965: 95-8), but no`hearths' with drill-holes, and Muller-Beck is not certain that thewood-on-wood technique was used here. Several rounded flint tools havebeen found at Burgaschisee-sud, pointing to the use of the pyritetechnique, though these were not interpreted as strike-a-lights; similartools are known from many other Swiss sites. Sometimes used-up coreswere exploited as strike-a-lights in the Neolithic (Nieszery 1992), butsturdy blades or bar-shaped tools with one or two rounded, ends, withlengths of 5-10 cm and rounded cross-sections, are more common (see forexamples FIGURE 1: 4, 5). Such bar-shaped pieces are frequently found inmegalithic meg��a��lith?n.A very large stone used in various prehistoric architectures or monumental styles, notably in western Europe during the second millennium b.c. tombs and in barrows. `Ice-man' Otzi owned such astrike-a-light, carried in a leather pouch which among other things helda piece of fungus, probably Fomes fomentarius; some pyrite particleswere also found (Egg et al. 1993; Nieszery 1992). It is clear that during the Mesolithic the flint/ pyrite techniquefor producing fire was in use. The most important evidence is finds ofpieces of pyrite. From several Mesolithic sites we also possess remnantsof Fomes fomentarius, for example from the well-known Early Mesolithicsite at Star Carr Star Carr is a Mesolithic archaeological site in Yorkshire in the United Kingdom. It is around five miles south of Scarborough.It belongs to the early Mesolithic Maglemosian culture, evidence for which is present across the lowlands of Northern Europe, and was occupied (England), where also rounded flints and pieces ofpyrite were found (Clark 1954). Pyrite and remnants of Fomes fomentariuswere found at several sites at Duvensee in northern Germany Northern Germany is the geographic area in the north of Germany. The native German concept of northern Germany is called Norddeutschland. Northern German StatesNorddeutschland is the geographic area of five German states: Bremen Hamburg (Schwantes1928; Bokelmann pers. comm. 1998). Fomes fomentarius is furthermoreknown from the Kongemose site in Denmark, and from several Maglemosiansites as well. Pyrites have been found at several Maglemosian sites inDenmark (e.g. Mullerup (this pyrite is burnt), Ulkestrup east, MaglelyngXVIII and Svaerdborg I, all on Zealand). A male grave at Nederst(Jutland), dating from the Ertebolle period, contained a lump ofweathered pyrite among other artefacts (Esben Kannegaard Nielsen pers.comm. 1995). Rounded flint tools from the Upper Palaeolithic: strike-a-lights? Upper Palaeolithic pyrite concretions, showing clear traces of use,are known from Laussel in France (Perigordian or Solutrean) and Chaleuxin Belgium (Magdalenian). At several other sites, e.g. at Vogelherd inGermany (Aurignacian) and Pincevent in France (Magdalenian), pieces ofpyrite have been found which do not (or no longer) show traces of use.The nodule nodule:see concretion. noduleIn geology, a rounded mineral concretion that is distinct from, and may be separated from, the formation in which it occurs. recovered at Chaleux has a groove, probably resulting fromforcefully and repeatedly rubbing a flint against it. Such grooves havealso been observed on pyrites in ethnographic contexts (e.g. Nieszery1992: Abb. 2). In northern Europe, pyrites from the Palaeolithic are rarelypreserved. We therefore concentrated on the flint tools used in theproduction of fire. Our experiments (see below) show that when a flinttool has been used as a strike-alight for some time, it reveals acharacteristic wear pattern: rounding, in many cases visible to thenaked eye, in addition to dense sets of scratches and gloss. In theliterature we found quite a few descriptions of flint artefacts withrounded ends. In general these were not interpreted as strike-a-lights,and most authors have not incorporated this tool type in theirtypological lists. Other authors mention the existence of this type, butwithout offering any interpretation. Campbell (1977: 13) described suchpieces as follows: `blades or flakes with one or both ends worn smoothby some rubbing process'. He noted the presence of this type inmany assemblages from the Creswellian in England. Two blades withrounded ends (`lames a bout emousse') from Gough's Cave inEngland (Creswellian) were illustrated by Leroi-Gourhan & Jacobi(1986: figure 3, nos. 3 & 4). Two blades with `rubbed ends'from the Creswellian layer in Three Holes Cave were illustrated byBarton & Roberts (1996: 252-3); these are associated with a hearthdated to around 12,190 BP. In a recent publication on Hengistbury Head Hengistbury Head is a headland jutting into the English Channel between Bournemouth and Christchurch in the English county of Dorset. At the end is a spit which creates the narrow entrance to Christchurch Harbour. (England), several rounded flint tools are described, with goodmicroscope photos (Barton 1992: 120, 123), again without an explanation(though there were hints from micro-wear analysis of`stone-on-stone' contact: Barton 1992: 170; Barton pers. comm.1998). Rounded implements are also described at several Magdaleniansites, e.g. Chaleux (Otte 1994), Andernach (Bosinski & Hahn 1972)and Kniegrotte (Feustel 1974). There are good reasons for cautionrelating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +accthe interpretation of rounded tools. Many different usescould have resulted in rounding. Engraving in limestone or slate is oneof the possibilities. Flints with rounded ends (especially burins, butalso other tool types) are known from Lascaux, which may have been usedfor engraving the limestone walls of the cave (Leroi-Gourhan &Allain 1979). Two rounded flint implements are known from the Hamburgian site atOldeholtwolde in the Netherlands, dating from Dryas 2 (Stapert et al.1986) (FIGURE 2: 1, 2). One combines a rounded end with a burin. Thetool was not produced at the site, as it cannot be refitted in areduction sequence with other blades or flakes and is also a unique typeof flint on the site. No use wear was present on the burin edge (Moss1988). The second rounded tool from Oldeholtwolde is a blade (fragmentedbecause of secondary frost-splitting), whose proximal end is rounded.Both tools show sets of striations on the rounded parts. Among thematerial from the Hamburgian site at Sassenhein in the northernNetherlands, so far four rounded pieces have been identified (FIGURE 2:3-6). It is notable that these are all crested blades, which are thickerand sturdier than regular blades; some rounded ends have a borer-likeshape. In several cases, the rounding is associated withmicro-splintering, especially on the ventral ventral/ven��tral/ (ven��tral)1. pertaining to the abdomen or to any venter.2. directed toward or situated on the belly surface; opposite of dorsal.ven��traladj. face. Another Hamburgiansite in the northern Netherlands is Vledder (Beuker & Niekus 1996),where one fragment of a rounded blade was found (FIGURE 3: 5). [Figures 2-3 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] On the Danish island of Lolland, two Hamburgian sites wereexcavated: Solbjerg 2 and 3 (Petersen & Johansen 1996). Solbjerg 2produced one rounded tool (FIGURE 3: 3); Solbjerg 3, nine specimens(FIGURE 3: 1, 2, 4, 6, 7). We also identified rounded tools among thematerial from several Hamburgian findspots in Germany: Meiendorf 2 (oneburin), Hasewisch (one piece, with the rounded end opposite a scraper),Poggenwisch (one burin) and Teltwisch 1 (a blade and a burin). Otherexamples were published from Ahrenshoft (Hartz 1987) and Schalkholz(Tromnau 1974). From the Federmesser site of Usselo in the Netherlandsone rounded tool is known: a crested blade. Another rounded tool of theFedermesser tradition, from Westelbeers in the southern Netherlands, wasdecribed by Arts & Deeben (1976: 26 & figure 20: 65). TheEpi-Ahrensburgian site of Gramsbergen in the eastern Netherlands(Johansen & Stapert in press) produced one specimen; the proximalpart of a blade is very strongly rounded, over quite a length (FIGURE 2:7). A few microscope photos of rounded flint implements are shown inFIGURE 4. Especially notable are the dense sets of parallel striationson the rounded ends. [Figure 4 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] At the above-mentioned Hamburgian sites in the Netherlands andDenmark, no engravings in stone or perforated stone pendants have beenfound. It therefore seems to be a reasonable proposition that the toolswith rounded ends were used as strike-a-lights. It would be nice,however, to posses some independent evidence to corroborate To support or enhance the believability of a fact or assertion by the presentation of additional information that confirms the truthfulness of the item.The testimony of a witness is corroborated if subsequent evidence, such as a coroner's report or the testimony of other ourhypothesis. One possibility is to look for residues: fine particles Fine particles are an air pollutant mainly produced by cars running on diesel. Other sources are the combustion of fossil fuels in power plants and various industrial processes. ofpyrite embedded in depressions on the surface of the rounded parts. Theburin of Oldeholtwolde was analysed by Dr G. Boom (formerly attached tothe Department of Applied Physics of Groningen University). He used ascanning electron microscope scan��ning electron microscopen. Abbr. SEMAn electron microscope that forms a three-dimensional image on a cathode-ray tube by moving a beam of focused electrons across an object and reading both the electrons scattered by the object and (SEM), coupled to a spectrometer forchemical analysis on element level. Boom discovered two minute particlescontaining sulphur and iron; one also contained copper. These could bepyrite or marcasite particles. We cannot be certain, however, because amineralogical determination was not attempted. Mr H. Bron of the samedepartment has looked at a series of rounded tools, including severalspecimens from Hamburgian sites in the Netherlands and Denmark. He founda few particles containing, among several other elements, sulphur andiron. The most convincing example is a rounded tool from Solbjerg 3.These preliminary results are encouraging, and we hope to continue thisline of research. It is likely that closer examination of Upper Palaeolithic lithic lith��ic?1?adj.Consisting of or relating to stone or rock.Adj. 1. lithic - of or containing lithium2. lithic - relating to or composed of stone; "lithic sandstone" assemblages in Europe will produce many more examples of tools withrounded ends. Reports on use-wear analyses of Upper Palaeolithic flintmaterial in most cases do not contain descriptions of such tools. Onereason might be that these implements are quite rare, and therefore hadlittle chance of ending up in samples; the rounding often occurs onpieces not classified as formal tools. The experiments at the Lejre Experimental Centre The Lejre Experimental Centre is a 50 acre (20 hectare) scientific laboratory in Lejre just outside of Roskilde, Denmark that was founded in 1964 by Hans-Ole Hansen. Scientists have recreated an Iron Age village (500 B.C.E. to 400 C.E. In 1995, we carried out experiments at theArchaeological-Historical Experimental Centre at Lejre in Denmark,together with a group of Scandinavian students of archaeology. Flinttools similar to the prehistoric ones described above were used on arange of materials, including hard and soft limestone, slate, quartzite quartzite,usually metamorphic rock composed of firmly cemented quartz grains. Most often it is white, light gray, yellowish, or light brown, but is sometimes colored blue, green, purple, or black by included minerals. ,sandstone, cow's hide and pyrite. Before and after use, these toolswere examined under a stereo-microscope. The main goal was to see if useon pyrite would produce characteristic wear patterns. The results willbe described in more detail elsewhere. Repeated use of flint on pyritetypically resulted in distinct rounding of the flint, very similar tothe rounding observed on Late Palaeolithic specimens described above. Onthe rounded parts, massive striations can be observed: sets ofsubparallel scratches densely packed together (FIGURE 5, at right).Numerous striations on flint tools resulting from use on pyrite are alsomentioned by Collin et al. (1991). In addition to massive scratching,the rounded areas show a fairly high gloss. Several other attributes mayalso occur, such as crushing and/ or splintering. [Figure 5 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] All experimental tools used on materials other than pyrite showvery different patterns of use wear; especially notable is the absenceof dense sets of striations. It appears that the combination of distinctrounding, gloss and massive scratching is quite characteristic of flintsrepeatedly and forcefully rubbed onto pyrite in order to produce sparks.Although this result is encouraging, it does not prove conclusively thatthe rounded flint tools presented above were strike-a-lights; this wouldrequire more analysis. Yet the use wear on the archaeological specimensdescribed above is very similar to that on the experimental piecesemployed on pyrite, also in terms of surface area, coarseness anddensity. Rounded tools from Palaeo-Eskimo sites in Greenland Similar rounded tools were identified among the material fromseveral Palaeo-Eskimo sites in western Greenland (Johansen & Stapert1997). During the past two decades, several dozen Palaeo-Eskimo siteshave been excavated in the Disko Bay area along the west coast. Thesites are ascribed to the Saqqaq culture The Saqqaq culture (named after the settlement Saqqaq, the site of many archaeological finds) is the second earliest known civilization in Greenland. It existed from around 2500 BC until about 800 BC, primarily in southern Greenland. (c. 2500-1000 BC) and theDorset culture The Dorset culture preceded the Inuit culture in Arctic North America. Inuit legends mention the Tuniit (singular Tuniq) or Sivullirmiut ("First Inhabitants"), who were driven away by the Inuit. (c. 800 BC-AD 1000). The historically known Eskimo arerepresentatives of the Thule culture which emerged about AD 1000. Atmany Palaeo-Eskimo sites in Greenland, preservation of organic materialsis excellent. Not only bones but also wooden objects often havesurvived. Qeqertasussuk is a site of the Saqqaq culture in Disko Baywhere many wooden artefacts were preserved (Gronnow 1988); however,wooden tools for the production of fire are absent (Gronnow pers. comm.1997). So far, we have identified stone implements with rounded ends inthe material from at least four Palaeo-Eskimo sites in westernGreenland. The sites stem from both the Saqqaq and Dorset cultures. Ninesuch tools were found at Ikkarlusuup Tima (FIGURE 6); this site belongsto the Dorset culture, and dates to the 1st millennium BC. Threedwelling structures with hearths were observed (Stapert & Johansen1995/96). In most cases, the rounded tools are re-used `burin-liketools' located close to hearths. We are convinced that these werestrike-a-lights, used in combination with pyrites. Pyrites were found atseveral Palaeo-Eskimo sites in this region, for example at Qeqertasussukwhere also at least one rounded tool was present. The rounded implementsin Greenland are not made of flint but of silicified slate (killiaq). Weused experimental tools made of this material on pyrite, and studied theresulting use wear. Both the experimental pieces and the roundedarchaeological specimens show the same use-wear as the European flintartefacts described above (see FIGURE 7). [Figures 6-7 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] The historical Thule Eskimo in Greenland are known to have producedfire mainly by the wood-on-wood technique (FIGURE 8); only in theextreme northwest did people employ pyrite (Birket-Smith 1929). Judgingby our results, the pyrite method seems to have been the oldest inGreenland. No good evidence for the wood-on-wood technique exists forperiods predating the Thule culture. [Figure 8 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] Discussion There has been considerable speculation about how methods for theproduction of fire were discovered, and which technique was the first.Some authors believe that the observation of sparks produced duringflint-knapping inspired the discovery. John Evans (1872: 281) suggestedthat the use of pyrite nodules as hammerstones in flint-knapping mighthave triggered the invention of fire-production. According to Hough(1890: 571), the flint/pyrite technique was the `originaldiscovery', gradually replaced by wood friction because thistechnique is easier to apply, and the necessary materials easier toobtain. Pyrites are more difficult to find than suitable pieces of wood,even in the Arctic. Pyrites from a `mine' in Boothia Peninsula Boothia Peninsula(b`thēə), 12,483 sq mi (32,331 sq km), Nunavut Territory, Canada; the northernmost (71°58'N) tip of the North American mainland. weretraded in historical times (Hough 1926: 112). In later publicationsHough changed his opinion on this matter: `... wood methods occurredprior to mineral methods' (Hough 1928: 3). The site of GuitarreroCave in the Andes region is sometimes mentioned as having providedevidence for the wood-on-wood technique during the early Holocene oreven the Late Glacial (e.g. Collina-Girard 1998). At this site six`hearths' with drill holes and three firesticks were found (Lynch1980: 243-52). However, these all came from the uppermost levels, andone of these objects has been directly radiocarbon-dated to 2315-125 BP. Our work seems to support the idea that the pyrite technique isindeed the oldest. For the European Stone Ages we possess much evidencefor the flint/pyrite method, but hardly any for the wood-on-woodtechnique. Similarly, the bearers of the Saqqaq and Dorset cultures,predating the historical Thule Eskimo, probably only produced fire usingpyrite. Both in Europe and in Greenland, therefore, the pyrite techniqueseems to be the oldest. The percussion techniques used in Tierra delFuego Tierra del Fuego(tyĕ`rä dĕl fwā`gō), [Span.=land of fire], archipelago, 28,476 sq mi (73,753 sq km), off S South America, separated from the mainland by the Strait of Magellan. and Australia may reflect the original tradition of fire-making. An important question is how Middle Palaeolithic people (includingHomo sapiens Homo sapiens(Latin; “wise man”)Species to which all modern human beings belong. The oldest known fossil remains date to c. 120,000 years ago—or much earlier (c. !) produced fire. Distinct hearths are known from thisperiod. Some wooden objects from the Middle Palaeolithic have beeninterpreted as fire-making tools, such as an 8.5-cm long specimen fromKrapina. These examples do not seem very convincing, however(Collina-Girard 1998). Distinctly rounded flint tools from the MiddlePalaeolithic are rarely mentioned. Yet, rounded tools do occur in somesites of the later Middle Palaeolithic, e.g. at Buhlen in Germany (L.Fiedler pers. comm. 1998). Pyrite was found at the Mousterian site ofGrotte de la Hyene in France by A. Leroi-Gourhan (Feustel 1973). Thesefew indications are not enough for concluding that fire was produced bymeans of flint and pyrite during the Middle Palaeolithic, though this isa distinct possibility. We must realize, however, that both thewood-on-wood technique and the pyrite/pyrite method have little chanceof being demonstrable on sites with poor preservation. Acknowledgements. We thank the Archaeological-HistoricalExperimental Centre at Lejre, Denmark, for supporting our experiments in1995. We are grateful to H.J. Bron (Groningen University) for SEM photosof flint tools. We thank Nick Barton Professor Nicholas Hamilton Barton FRS FRSE is a British evolutionary biologist.Better known as Nick Barton, he gained his PhD as a student of Godfrey Hewitt at the University of East Anglia in 1979. (Oxford University), Denise Leesch(Service et Musee d'Archeologie, Neuchatel), Prof. G.J. Boekschoten(Amsterdam) and Prof. J. Goudsblom (Amsterdam) for critically reading afirst draft. 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Analyse pollinique etmateriel ma��te��ri��elor ma��t����ri��el ?n.The equipment, apparatus, and supplies of a military force or other organization. See Synonyms at equipment. archeologique de Gough's Cave (Cheddar, Somerset),Bulletin de la Societe Prehistorique Francaise 83(3): 83-90. LEROI-GOURHAN, A. & J. ALLAIN. 1979. Lascaux inconnu inconnuNounCanad a whitefish of Arctic waters [French, literally: unknown] . Paris:CNRS CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (National Center for Scientific Research, France)CNRS Centro Nacional de Referencia Para El Sida (Argentinean National Reference Center for Aids). 12e Supplement a Gallia-Prehistoire. LYNCH, T.F. (ed.). 1980. Guitarrero Cave. Early Man in the Andes.New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. 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Oldeholtwolde,a Late Hamburgian site in the Netherlands, in D.A. Roe (ed.), Studies inthe Upper Palaeolithic of Britain and Northwest Europe: 187-226. Oxford:British Archaeological Reports. International series 296. STROBEL, R. 1939. Die Feuersteingerate der Pfahlbaukultur. Leipzig:Curt Rabitsch. Mannus-Bucherei 66. TROMNAU, G. 1974. Der jungpalaolithische Fundplatz Schalkholz,Kreis Dithmarschen, Hammaburg NF 1: 9-22. UERPMANN, M. 1981. Die Feuersteinartefakte derCortaillod-Schichten. Bern: Staatlicher Lehrmittelverlag. Dieneolithischen Ufersiedlungen von Twann 18. DICK STAPERT & LYKKE JOHANSEN, Stapert, Groningen Institute ofArchaeology The Institute of Archaeology is an academic department of University College London (UCL), in the United Kingdom. The Institute is located in a separate building at the north end of Gordon Square, Bloomsbury. , Groningen University, Poststraat 6, 9712 ER Groningen,Netherlands. d.stapert@let.rug.nl Johansen, Institut for Arkaeologi og Etnologi, CopenhagenUniversity, Vandkunsten 5, 1167 Kobenhavn K, Denmark. Received 22 June 1998, revised 10 December 1998, accepted 15 May1999, revised 29 June 1999, 3 October 1999.