Food resources and changing patterns of resource use among the the Lundayeh of the Ulu Padas, Sabah.

Food resources and changing patterns of resource use among the the Lundayeh of the Ulu Padas, Sabah. This paper gives an account of the food resources and diet of theLundayeh of Long Pasia and Long Mio at the end of the twentieth century.I describe the diversity of resources used and patterns of resource use,investigating the importance of different habitats as sources of food.This research is placed in the context of central Borneo Borneo(bôr`nēō'), island (1990 pop. 9,102,906), c.287,000 sq mi (743,330 sq km), largest of the Malay Archipelago and third largest island in the world, SW of the Philippines and N of Java. by comparing myown findings with those of researchers who have done similar studieselsewhere in the region. The Lundayeh have experienced rapid social andenvironmental changes in the last decade. I examine how people haveresponded to these changes, as reflected in their resource managementpractices. On this basis, I consider what lessons can be learned fromthe Lundayeh by those attempting to develop a more sustainablemanagement strategy for the region. ********** Background The Lundayeh communities of Long Pasia and Long Mio are situated inthe Ulu Padas region of southwest Southwest or south west is the ordinal direction halfway between south and west, the opposite of northeast.Southwest or south west may also refer to: The Southwestern United States Southwest China Sabah Sabah(sä`bä), state (1991 pop. 1,736,902), 28,417 sq mi (73,600 sq km), Malaysia, N Borneo, on the South China and Sulu seas. It is bordered on the south by Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo). . These are the only two highlandLundayeh villages in Sabah. The majority of the Sabahan Noun 1. Sabahan - a Malaysian from SabahNorth Borneo, Sabah - a region of Malaysia in northeastern BorneoMalaysian - a native or inhabitant of MalaysiaAdj. 1. Sabahan - of or pertaining to Sabah or its people; "Sabahan tribesmen" Lundayeh live inthe lowlands, particularly in the Sipitang Sipitang is a town and also a parliamentary constituency located in Interior Division of Sabah, east Malaysia on the island of Borneo. Its population was estimated to be around 24,340 in 1991. region. However, they stillsee themselves as essentially a highland people. The Lundayeh regard theKerayan-Kelabit highlands in Kalimantan Kalimantan:see Borneo. as their heartland. It is fromhere that they are thought to have originated, migrating throughout theregion where the states of Kalimantan, Sarawak Sarawak(sərä`wäk), state (1991 pop. 1,648,217), 48,342 sq mi (125,206 sq km), Malaysia, in NW Borneo and on the South China Sea. and Sabah meet, over thelast two centuries (Harrisson 1967). Long Pasia is a village of about 400 residents, and Long Mio about120 residents. The villages are at an altitude altitude,vertical distance of an object above some datum plane, such as mean sea level or a reference point on the earth's surface. It is usually measured by the reduction in atmospheric pressure with height, as shown on a barometer or altimeter. of 1000m, and aresurrounded sur��round?tr.v. sur��round��ed, sur��round��ing, sur��rounds1. To extend on all sides of simultaneously; encircle.2. To enclose or confine on all sides so as to bar escape or outside communication.n. by undulating hills, and beyond these, mountains. Thevegetation vegetation/veg��e��ta��tion/ (vej?e-ta��shun) any plantlike fungoid neoplasm or growth; a luxuriant fungus-like growth of pathologic tissue. close to the villages is a patchwork of fields and secondaryforest of varying ages, a consequence of people's long history inthe region, and their practice of swidden swid��den?n.An area cleared for temporary cultivation by cutting and burning the vegetation.[Dialectal alteration of obsolete swithen, from Old Norse svidhna, to be burned.] agriculture. Further afield,the region was, at least until very recently, covered by one of the lastextensive areas of old-growth forest remaining in Sabah (Payne :The name may also be spelt Paine.The surname Payne stems from paganus, see pagan. PeopleKing Payne, a Seminole chief A.R. and Vaz1998). This forest is a mix of heath heath, tract of open landheath,tract of open land characterized by a few scattered trees, abundant moss cover, and numerous low shrubs, principally of the heath family (see heath, in botany). and montane mon��tane?adj.Of, growing in, or inhabiting mountain areas.[Latin montnus, from m forests. (1) The Lundayeh of Long Pasia and Long Mio are primarily swiddenagriculturalists, although wet rice cultivation cultivation,tilling or manipulation of the soil, done primarily to eliminate weeds that compete with crops for water and nutrients. Cultivation may be used in crusted soils to increase soil aeration and infiltration of water; it may also be used to move soil to or is also important. Cashcrops are extensively cultivated cultivated,n in herbal medicine, used to describe plants that are commercially farmed rather than collected from the wild. , with coffee and tobacco having metwith particular success during the time of this research. As well ascash-cropping, the other main source of income is from wage labor. Manypeople go to work in the logging camps, and in towns and cities in Sabahand further afield. Since 1997 the villages have been linked to Sipitangby a logging road, a journey that takes about four hours. The arrival ofthe road enabled expansion of cash cropping, and easier availability ofprocessed goods. In addition, it encouraged a number of families toreturn to the village. The population of both villages has grown inrecent years, and seems likely to continue to do so. The arrival of theroad also marked the beginning of extensive logging activities in theregion. These have been going on around the villages, with noticeableimpacts on the availability of forest resources and on river quality.However, in spite of in opposition to all efforts of; in defiance or contempt of; notwithstanding.See also: Spite the many social and environmental changes which theLundayeh have experienced in recent years, forest resources continue tomake an important and highly valued contribution to their subsistence subsistence,n the state of being supported or remaining alive with a minimum of essentials. . Methodology Research was conducted from September September:see month. 1999 until November November:see month. 2000 aspart of a wider Ph.D. study. Hunting and dietary di��e��tar��yadj.Of or relating to diet.dietary1. pertaining to diet.2. a course or system of diet.dietary hepatic necrosissee hepatosis dietetica. surveys were conductedto investigate the diversity of resources being used, their importancein the diet, and the relative importance of different environments assources of these foods. During five seven-day Adj. 1. seven-day - lasting through a week; "her weeklong vacation"weeklonglong - primarily temporal sense; being or indicating a relatively great or greater than average duration or passage of time or a duration as specified; "a long life"; "a long boring periods in each of thevillages, a member of every household was asked to record the foodsbeing eaten within their household. These surveys were conducted atroughly two-month intervals throughout the year, so that any seasonalvariation in the diet could be observed. During one survey period, Iasked the children to keep their own food diaries, to enable acomparison to be made with that of the adults. Complementary to the dietary surveys, botanical bo��tan��i��cal? also bo��tan��icadj.1. Of or relating to plants or plant life.2. Of or relating to the science of botany.n. collectingexpeditions were undertaken. These were conducted in the areassurrounding sur��round?tr.v. sur��round��ed, sur��round��ing, sur��rounds1. To extend on all sides of simultaneously; encircle.2. To enclose or confine on all sides so as to bar escape or outside communication.n. the villages with people from the villages. I collectedspecimens of plant species used as vegetables, fruits, spices, leavesfor wrapping rice, cooking containers, as well as plants that are usedto obtain food, for example, to make fishing nets, animal traps, fishpoisons and hunting charms. These activities enabled more completedocumentation of the edible fruits, since these were often not recordedin the food surveys. In addition, they gave particular insight intoneglected food resources--those that are rarely, or never, used today. Interviews were also undertaken with all households to investigatepeople's agricultural strategies and land and resource usepractices. Food Resources of the Lundayeh In common with perhaps all other swidden agriculturalists of Borneo(Chin 1985; Christensen Christensen may refer to: Christensen (constructor), a former racing car constructor 164P/Christensen, a periodic comet 170P/Christensen, a periodic comet Several other periodic comets discovered by Christensen 1997, 2002; Colfer et al. 1997; Dove 1985;Janowski 1995), the food of greatest importance is rice. When askingwhether you have eaten yet, the Lundayeh ask whether you have eaten rice(nekuman luba' ko?). Only if you have done so are you considered tohave eaten. Eaten with the rice are kikid,'side-dishes'--these are the vegetables, meat or fruits eatenas side-dishes. It is this aspect of the diet that I describe in mostdetail. Snack foods A list of snack foods is shown below. For more information, see snack foods. List of snack foodsChips(Crisps) Banana chips Bugles Cheese curls Cheese puffs Combos Corn chips Nachos Pita chips Pretzel Potato chips also make a significant contribution to the diet. Thesewere greatly underrecorded in the dietary surveys (an occurrence commonto many such studies (Colfer and SSoedjito 1996; Etkin 1994)).Therefore, although the diversity of these foods was recorded, it wasnot possible to determine their significance in the diet, nor determinethe relative importance of vegetation types as sources of fruits. Kikid The foods that are served as kikid are diverse. At their mostbasic, the kikid may be simply salt or chillies--although this is onlyout of necessity rather than from choice. More typically, a meal willinclude a few vegetables, and perhaps some meat or fish. Appendix 1shows the full range of foods that were recorded in the dietary surveys,as well as the few additional foods I observed being eaten at othertimes. This gives a more or less complete representation of the range offoods that are eaten as kikid. Plant resources make up the vast majority of the kikid served,accounting for 68% in Long Mio and 63% in Long Pasia (by frequency) ofthose recorded in the food diaries (the remainder of which are meat orfish). Apparent from the data is the wide range of plant resources used.The Lundayeh recognize 113 types of vegetable vegetable,term originally used for any plant, now the name for many food plants, most of them annuals, and for their edible parts. There is no clear botanical distinction between vegetables and fruits. (2) and ubud Ubud is a town in central Bali, Indonesia, considered the arts and culture center of the island.Ubud has a population of about 8,000 people, but it is becoming difficult to distinguish the town itself from the villages that once surrounded it. (stem pith pith,in botany, core of the stem of most plants. Pith is composed of large, loosely packed food-storage cells. As the stem grows older the pith usually dries out, and in some it disintegrates and the stem becomes hollow. ),28 mushrooms and 22 flavorings. Identification to species level was notalways possible (because of the absence of specimens or of fertilematerial Fertile material is a term used to describe nuclides which generally themselves do not undergo induced fission (fissionable by thermal neutrons) but from which fissile material is generated by neutron absorption and subsequent nuclei conversions. for identification, for example), and so the number of speciesused cannot be given precisely. However, they represent at least 107species of vegetable, 19 species of flavoring, and 10 mushroom mushroom,type of basidium fungus characterized by spore-bearing gills on the underside of the umbrella- or cone-shaped cap. The name toadstool is popularly reserved for inedible or poisonous mushrooms, but this classification has no scientific basis. species.This is certainly an under-estimate of the number of edible mushroomspecies, since I was only able to gather specimens for 12 of the typesof mushrooms. Similar arrays of edible plant resources (both with respect to thenumber of species used, and the actual species) have been recorded forother central Borneo societies (Chin 1985; Christensen 1997, 2002;Colfer et al. 1997). Christensen (2002) collected comparable data on thenumbers of species being used by an Iban and a Kelabit The Kelabit, who have close ties to the Lun Bawang, are an indigenous race of the Sarawak highlands with a minority in the neighbouring state of Brunei. The elevation here is slightly over 1,200 meters. community inSarawak. These data are summarized in Table 1. This suggests that theLundayeh use slightly fewer edible resources than either the Iban orKelabit communities (although it should be born in mind that mycalculations of species numbers are conservative estimates). There are anumber of possible reasons for this. Undoubtedly a significant factor isthe degree of isolation of these communities. Unlike the Iban andKelabit communities, Long Pasia and Long Mio are accessible by road, andthis is likely to have resulted in a shift away from the use of somelocal resources towards processed and shop-bought goods. Although plant resources account for the majority of the kikid thatare eaten, people have a strong preference for eating meat. When no onehas had any recent hunting success, it is common to hear complaints frompeople about how bored they are with eating 'just leaves' (donmo). The importance of meat and fish in the diet is apparent from thefigures showing the percentage of meals in which these are eaten. Thus,in Long Pasia, 49% of meals included hunted meat or fish from therivers, or if we include meat and fish that have been reared or shoppurchased, the figure rises to 64% of meals. The equivalent figures forLong Mio are 42% and 58% respectively. In terms of numbers of side-dishes, meat and fish account for 32%in Long Mio and 37% in Long Pasia, these figures also includeshop-bought meat and livestock livestockFarm animals, with the exception of poultry. In Western countries the category encompasses primarily cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, horses, donkeys, and mules; other animals (e.g., buffalo, oxen, or camels) may predominate in other areas. . By comparison with data reported fromother central Borneo communities, this figure is low. For example, in aKenyah The Kenyah are an indigenous peoples of Borneo, living in the remote Baram and Belaga regions in Sarawak, Malaysia and Kalimantan, Indonesia. The Kenyah are grouped together with the Kayan under the Bahau ethnic group. Traditionally they lived in long houses. community, 49% of the side-dishes of three individuals were ofhunted meat or local river fish (Chin 1985:90-91). The same figures forfour members of a Kantu' community were 43% for hunted meat andriver fish, and 45% when including shop-bought meat or livestock (Colferand Soedjito 1996:176 and 180-181). Although care needs to be taken notto infer too much from this, the data used for comparison being fromrelatively small survey numbers, it does suggest that less meat and fishis being eaten in Long Mio and Long Pasia than might be expected. Thisis perhaps not surprising given the decline in animal and fish numbersthat local people have noted in recent years. In fact, there is someevidence to suggest that fewer animals are hunted in Long Pasia todaythan seven years previously. This comes from hunting surveys carried outin Long Pasia in 1993 (Bennett et al. 2000:307-310). At that time, therewas no logging in A colloquial term for the process of making the initial record of the names of individuals who have been brought to the police station upon their arrest.The process of logging in is also called booking. the area, and the road had not yet reached thevillages. The population of Long Pasia was also smaller, with only 40households, in comparison to today's 68. As part of this research,data were recorded of the percentage of evening meals containing wildmeat and local river fish (Bennett, personal communication). I do notknow at what time of year this information was recorded. However, thesefigures are considerably higher than those from all the dietary surveysthat I conducted (Table 2). Certainly, it would be surprising if there has not been a declinein the numbers of game and fish consumed con��sume?v. con��sumed, con��sum��ing, con��sumesv.tr.1. To take in as food; eat or drink up. See Synonyms at eat.2. a. because of the changes thathave taken place in the last decade. These have included an increase inpopulation, both within the villages, and from the establishment oflogging camps throughout the area. In addition, logging in the area hascaused forest loss as well as noise and river pollution, and the loggingroads have enabled easier access to more remote parts, both to villagersand to outsiders. Although hunted meat and fish from the local rivers are still themost important sources of protein in the diet, with declining huntingand fishing returns, people are increasingly turning to shop-bought andprocessed foods. Such foods accounted for 4% and 7% of kikid recorded inthe dietary surveys in Long Mio and Long Pasia respectively. The greaterconsumption of shop-bought foods in Long Pasia reflects their greateravailability there (there are three stores in the village, in comparisonto Long Mio's one store), and also the greater affluence of somepeople in Long Pasia. Tinned meat and fish, salted fish, and chickeneggs are the main foods that people buy from the village stores, and theusual reason for buying these is because people have no fresh meat inthe house. For the same reasons, the consumption of chicken and tilapia tilapia(təlä`pēə)or St. Peter's fish,a spiny-finned freshwater fish of the family Cichlidae, native chiefly to Africa and the Middle East. (from fish ponds) is increasing. Of the domesticated animals This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details.This article has been tagged since September 2007.This is a list of animals which have been domesticated by humans. , onlychickens are eaten as kikid on an everyday basis. The other animals,pigs, buffaloes, and cows, are only slaughtered for special occasions. Snack Foods Snack foods include cakes and biscuits, fruits, instant noodles noo��dle?1?n.A narrow, ribbonlike strip of dried dough, usually made of flour, eggs, and water.[German Nudel. ,bread, sweets and crisps crisp?adj. crisp��er, crisp��est1. Firm but easily broken or crumbled; brittle: crisp potato chips.2. (see Appendix 1). Many snack foods are eatenwhile people are out in the fields or forest. When a group is working insomeone's field, the owner of that field always provides drinks,together with cakes of some kind. Often, flied doughnuts (kui tepong,'flour cakes') are cooked, or during the months of Novemberand December December:see month. , when the corn is ripe, fried 1. (hardware) fried - Non-working due to hardware failure; burnt out. Especially used of hardware brought down by a "power glitch" (see glitch), drop-outs, a short, or some other electrical event. corn cakes corn cakeor corn��caken. Chiefly Southern & Midland U.S.See johnnycake. See Regional Note at johnnycake.Noun 1. are popular.People often eat cucumbers to refresh (1) To continuously charge a device that cannot hold its content. CRTs must be refreshed, because the phosphors hold their glow for only a few milliseconds. Dynamic RAM chips require refreshing to maintain their charged bit patterns. See vertical scan frequency and redraw. themselves while harvesting therice fields (the season when these fruits are ripe). Sugar cane cane, walking stickcane,walking stick. Probably used first as a weapon, it gradually took on the symbolism of strength and power and eventually authority and social prestige. and theyoung shoots of certain trees, periku, which have a high water contentand are astringent astringent(əstrĭn`jənt), substance that shrinks body tissues. Astringent medicines cause shrinkage of mucous membranes or exposed tissues and are often used internally to check discharge of serum or mucous secretions in sore throat, to the taste, also provide a ready source ofrefreshment (Table 3). Fruits, as well as other snack foods, are particularly important inchildren's diets. This was apparent from the data collected in thechildren's food diaries. As well as a much higher incidence ofsnack foods, children also recorded a greater diversity, for example,they recorded a number of fruits that were absent from the adult fooddiaries, including bua bidang (Rubus rosifolius) and bua buau (Syzigiumfoxworthianum). Children snack on a wide range of fruits. Those mostcommonly eaten are listed in Table 4. Characteristics shared by thesespecies are that they are easily accessible, easy to harvest, and havefruits requiring little or no preparation before eating. Adults aregenerally more discerning dis��cern��ing?adj.Exhibiting keen insight and good judgment; perceptive.dis��cerning��ly adv. in their choice of fruits, preferring thelarger and sweeter fruits, most of which are from cultivated varieties.However, there are certain forest fruits that adults will go out oftheir way for, such as the fruits of species of Durio, Nepheliurn, andMangifera. The most important snack foods are fruits--important both becausethey are the most frequently consumed, and because of their nutritionalvalue (Hladik et al. 1993). In Appendix 2 I have listed the ediblefruits found locally. Not included in the table are those fruits thatare sometimes bought in town. Most commonly, people buy fruits grown inthe Sipitang area, such as rambutan, durian durian,the highly esteemed, edible fruit of Durio zibethinus. The edible portions are the seeds found inside the large spiny fruits, which may weigh several pounds. , mango mango(măng`gō), evergreen tree of the Anacardiaceae (sumac family), native to tropical E Asia and now grown in both hemispheres. The chief species, Mangifera indica, is believed to have been cultivated for about 6,000 years. , and watermelon watermelon,plant (Citrullus vulgaris) of the family Curcurbitaceae (gourd family) native to Africa and introduced to America by Africans transported as slaves. Watermelons are now extensively cultivated in the United States and are popular also in S Russia. .Occasionally, other fruits are bought, such as grapes Grapes - A Modula-like system description language.E-mail: <peter@cadlab.cadlab.de>.["GRAPES Language Description. Syntax, Semantics and Grammar of GRAPES-86", Siemens Nixdorf Inform, Berlin 1991, ISBN 3-8009-4112-0]. , apples andoranges. 109 Lundayeh names of fruits were recorded, these correspondingto at least 89 species (a conservative estimate, because not all wereidentified to species). As previously noted for the kikid, in comparisonwith the data collected by Christensen (2002), this is a lower number ofspecies. The Kelabit community of Pa Dalih were reported to use 125species, and the Iban community of Nanga This article is about a school of Japanese painting. For the African musical instrument, see nanga (instrument).Nanga (南画, "Southern painting"), also known as Bunjinga Sumpa, 184 species of fruit. Patterns of Resource Use Patterns of resource use are shaped by people's preferencesfor the particular resources, and the resources' availability andease of harvesting. In turn, ease of harvesting is influenced bypeople's activities, for example, when people are out hunting,certain resources, such as rattans, are readily accessible. Similarly,during periods of intensive agricultural work, food resources in thefields are those that are most readily available, and consequently,people tend to rely more on these (Colfer and Soedjito 1996; Dove 1985). These factors are reflected in the data on the relative importanceof different vegetation types as sources of side-dishes. As part of thedietary surveys, I asked people to record where they had harvested theirfoods--whether from old-growth forest, secondary forest, riverside Riverside.1 City (1990 pop. 226,505), seat of Riverside co., S Calif.; inc. 1883. One of the fastest growing U.S. cities in the late 20th cent., it is famous for its orange industry. vegetation, the fields or village, field margins and young fallow fallowa pale cream, light fawn, or pale yellow coat color in dogs. vegetation, or if they had been bought. The results are summarized inFigures 1 and 2. (3) I included hunting as a separate category becausepeople generally recorded all hunted meat as having come from old-growthforest. This is in spite of the fact that a considerable amount ofhunting takes place within secondary forest, and to a lesser extent, inagricultural areas and fallow vegetation. It was therefore oftenimpossible to know in which type of vegetation the animals had beencaught. Domesticated animals, and also fish from fishponds and paddyfields, were included in the category of "field / village." The data show that the majority of the foods eaten as side-dishescomes from the fields, with a significant number also coming fromriverside vegetation. The importance of fields is not surprising,especially given the expansion in vegetable cultivation in recent years.A wide variety of vegetables are grown, providing an abundant supply.Furthermore, many people have fields near to the village, and so thefoods here are readily available. Even for those people who do not haveland close by, much time is spent working in the fields, and so theresources growing here are those that are easiest to collect. The riverside is also an important source of vegetables. Thevegetation here is often dominated by edible plant species, making themeasy to collect. In Long Mio, riverside vegetation is particularlyimportant as a source of foods, because there are extensive areas closeto the village. In contrast, much of the riverside in Long Pasia hasbeen converted to fields. Furthermore, there are many more people, andso harvesting pressure on those remaining areas near the village isquite high. At certain times, such as after a period of drought drought,abnormally long period of insufficient rainfall. Drought cannot be defined in terms of inches of rainfall or number of days without rain, since it is determined by such variable factors as the distribution in time and area of precipitation during and before , thewomen commented that it was difficult to find enough vegetables toprovide for their families from the riverbanks close to the village. Old-growth and secondary forest are the source of relatively fewedible plant resources, their main importance being as a source ofhunted meat. However, certain plant resources predominate here, such asbamboo bamboo,plant of the family Gramineae (grass family), chiefly of warm or tropical regions, where it is sometimes an extremely important component of the vegetation. It is most abundant in the monsoon area of E Asia. shoots. Bamboos (Gigantochloa Gigantochloa is a tropical genus of giant clumping bamboo, similar to the genus Bambusa. Found in Southeast Asia, the genus comprises about 24 species. levis, Bambusa vulgaris Noun 1. Bambusa vulgaris - extremely vigorous bamboo having thin-walled culms striped green and yellow; so widely cultivated that native area is uncertaincommon bamboobamboo shoot - edible young shoots of bamboo andSchizostachyum Schizostachyum is a tall or shrub-like tropical genus of bamboo. The genus name comes from Greek schistos ("cleft") and stachys ("spike"), referring to the spacing of spikelets.These are clumping, and sometimes climbing bamboos. brachycladum) send up new shoots only a few months eachyear, between June June:see month. and August, so there is a glut glutpronounced as rut, slut Vox populi An excess of a service or skilled labor in a particular area. See Physician glut. of this vegetable atthis time. During the fourth dietary survey conducted in Long Pasia,bamboo shoots were in season, and consequently, secondary forest is thesource of many more kikid during this time. Many seasonal resources are from swidden fields, the agriculturalcalendar determining their availability. A few weeks after rice plantingbegins, mustard greens Noun 1. mustard greens - leaves eaten as cooked greensIndian mustard, leaf mustard, mustardcruciferous vegetable - a vegetable of the mustard family: especially mustard greens; various cabbages; broccoli; cauliflower; brussels sprouts (Brassica brassicaAny plant of the large genus Brassica, in the mustard family, containing about 40 Old World species and including the cabbages, mustards, and rapes. B. oleracea has many edible varieties, such as broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, and kohlrabi. spp.) and spinach spinach,annual plant (Spinacia oleracea) of the family Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot family), probably of Persian origin and known to have been introduced into Europe in the 15th cent. (Amaranthus Amaranthusa genus of the plant family Amaranthaceae, many of them succulent weeds of cultivated fields. Contain high levels of nitrate or oxalate or both. Includes A. blitum, A. cruentus, A. deflexus, A. hybridus, A. mitchellii, A. spp.) areready for harvesting. It is these vegetables that account for the muchgreater significance of fields as a source of kikid in the fifth dietarysurveys which were conducted during the time of rice planting. Acontributing factor is that this is a period of intense agriculturalactivity, and so people do not have time to collect vegetables fromelsewhere. A month or so later, around November, the leaves of squashes(Benincasa hispida, Cucurbita spp., Momordica prop. n. 1. A genus of Old World tropical vine.Noun 1. Momordica - Old World tropical vinegenus Momordicadicot genus, magnoliopsid genus - genus of flowering plants having two cotyledons (embryonic leaves) in the seed which usually charantia) and cucumbers(Cucumis sativus Cucumis sativus,n See cucumber. ) can be harvested, and they continue to provide asource of green vegetables until the end of rice harvesting (March orApril). Their fruits take a few months to mature, ripening ripeningsaid of meat. See curing. from January January:see month. onwards on��ward?adj.Moving or tending forward.adv. also on��wardsIn a direction or toward a position that is ahead in space or time; forward.Adv. 1. . The availability of snails is also linked with the agriculturalcalendar. During the relatively slow period between rice harvesting andclearing the fields for next year's crop, from April to June,snails make up an important part of the diet. This is because at thistime of year the women do not have much work to do, and so they have thetime to collect snails. Furthermore, the paddy fields are free of rice,and so people are able to collect snails as well as fish. This accountsfor the higher numbers of "river fish" recorded in the thirdLong Mio survey (where most snails are collected from a lake, and sowere included as river fish), and also for the relatively high numbersof side-dishes coming from the "field/village" in the thirdLong Pasia survey (where most snails are collected from paddy fields). The amount of hunting that goes on is also related to people'sother activities. Thus, when the men are busy with agricultural work, asduring the fifth hunting surveys when they were involved with riceplanting, hunting activities decline. Also significant in influencingthe amount of hunting is the availability of game. Animal populationsvary, particularly in relation to the availability of food. Mostsignificantly, boar populations increase dramatically during mast mast,large metal or timber pole secured vertically or nearly vertically in a ship, used primarily for supporting sails and rigging. The mast is as old as sailing vessels, and the oldest sailboats depicted (those of ancient Egypt) had a small mast placed forward and fruiting events. Apparently, at such times many boar are hunted.Although there was no mast fruiting during the period of my fieldwork field��work?n.1. A temporary military fortification erected in the field.2. Work done or firsthand observations made in the field as opposed to that done or observed in a controlled environment.3. ,many species were in fruit during the first and second dietary surveys.Reflecting this, greater numbers of animals were hunted during thesesurvey periods, and more meat was eaten at this time. Certain other resources vary in availability, although notnecessarily at the same times each year. A major factor influencing theamount of fish that is eaten is the timing of fish spawning. Such anevent took place during the second dietary survey in Long Pasia, andmany people went fishing and made large catches. Consequently, fish madea much greater contribution to the diet during this period. In summary, investigation of patterns of resource use show thatfields are the source for the most frequently eaten vegetables for theLundayeh. However, non-cultivated habitats are the source of a widerange of vegetable species and also the source of many fruits. Theforest is also the source of most of the meat and fish that is eaten.Thus, fallow fields and forest habitats contribute much diversity to thediet, something that is greatly valued by the Lundayeh. This is not onlybecause of personal taste, people also recognize that forest resourcesare a valuable source of food at times when other foods, such ascultivated vegetables, are unavailable. Thus, forest foods are importantfor nutrition and for food security (Appell Appell is a surname and may refer to: Dave Appell, an arranger, producer, and musician Paul ��mile Appell, a French mathematician and rector of the University of Paris 1988; Etkin 1994). Changing Strategies One feature then of the Lundayeh subsistence system is the use of adiversity of resources, and of vegetation types. Until recently, such astrategy has been possible because of the availability of extensiveforest resources. Furthermore, the Lundayeh system of forest management,of which the practice of swidden agriculture is an integral part, hasserved to create a mosaic of forest patches at different stages ofregeneration Regeneration (biology)The process by which an animal restores a lost part of its body. Broadly defined, the term can include wound healing, tissue repair, and many kinds of restorative activities. , thus, helping to increase the availability of a wide rangeof resources. However, whether this strategy will continue to bepossible in future years seems unlikely because of the rapidenvironmental and social changes that are taking place. Indeed, theevidence cited previously suggests that the use of forest resources isin decline. This was indicated by the lower number of species used asvegetables and fruit by the Lundayeh in comparison with Kelabit and Ibancommunities in Sarawak. Similarly, data on the consumption of huntedmeat show that the Lundayeh are eating less in comparison with otherhighland Borneo communities, and indeed, that its consumption hasdeclined in the period from 1993 to 2000. One cause of these changes has been the logging activities in theUlu Padas, which have resulted in the loss of large areas of forest.Consequently, there has been a decline in the availability of certainforest resources. Logging has also placed increased pressure on the landfalling outside the logging concessions. The responses of the Lundayehto these changes have been varied. One response has been to put greatereffort and resources into the cultivation of cash crops. Parallel tothis, there has been a shift away from swidden cultivation, with somepeople deciding to cultivate cul��ti��vate?tr.v. cul��ti��vat��ed, cul��ti��vat��ing, cul��ti��vates1. a. To improve and prepare (land), as by plowing or fertilizing, for raising crops; till.b. only wet rice (for which subsidies areavailable) and others concentrating entirely on cash crops (withsubsidies also available for certain of these). People are choosing todo this partly because they recognize that in the future they will notbe able to depend on local resources for their needs, and so will haveto buy replacements. This is just part of a more general trend towardsgreater dependence on a cash economy, with people needing to meet suchcosts as schooling, medical expenses and to purchase variousmanufactured goods manufactured goodsnpl → manufacturas fpl; bienes mpl manufacturadosmanufactured goodsnpl → produits manufactur��s. Another response of the Lundayeh to the decline in forest resourceshas been to bring some of these into cultivation (see Table 5). Theseinclude favored rattan rattan(rătăn`), name for a number of plants of the genera Calamus, Daemonorops, and Korthalsia climbing palms of tropical Asia, belonging to the family Palmae (palm family). species, flavorings and spices, and many fruittrees, in particular, species of mango, durian and rambutan. TheLundayeh have a long tradition of bringing fruit trees into cultivation.However, in recent years these activities have expanded, because peoplefear that these resources will not be available in future years, andalso because of a desire to establish fruit orchards for commercialreasons. Similarly, in response to the decline in animal and fishnumbers, many people have constructed fish ponds for rearing tilapia,and a number of households keep chickens. The increased pressure on both land and resources is also resultingin a shift towards greater privatization privatization:see nationalization. privatizationTransfer of government services or assets to the private sector. State-owned assets may be sold to private owners, or statutory restrictions on competition between privately and publicly owned . Today, there exists a greatsense of urgency to secure land titles. Furthermore, some people nowrestrict access to resources that lie on their land. For example, thereis a large patch of bamboo forest near Long Pasia which today failsunder the ownership of several people. A few individuals have let it beknown that they do not want people collecting bamboo shoots from theirland, despite there being a long tradition of open access to othervillagers for these resources. Although this is the cause of some illfeeling, with such behavior being seen as not customary for theLundayeh, it has not been openly challenged. Rather, it has led to otherpeople following suit. Undoubtedly, the Lundayeh of Long Pasia and Long Mio will continueto change and adapt their way of life over the next decade and beyond.Some of these changes will no doubt be welcomed, but others will comeabout from necessity rather than preference. Already, their futureoptions have been limited by the widespread logging. Consequently, ashift away from a forest-based lifestyle, with more intensiveagriculture and greater involvement in the cash economy and in urbanlife, seems inevitable. What remains uncertain is whether, in thisprocess, any of the particular characteristics of the Lundayeh way oflife and of the Ulu Padas will be maintained. The Ulu Padas is a uniqueregion, both biologically and culturally, and it would be both tragicand nonsensical if it were converted to plantations PLANTATIONS. Colonies, (q.v.) dependencies. (q.v.) 1 Bl. Com. 107. In England, this word, as it is used in St. 12, II. c. 18, is never applied to, any of the British dominions in Europe, but only to the colonies in the West Indies and America. 1 Marsh. Ins, B. 1, c. 3, Sec. 2, page 64. and fields in itsentirety The whole, in contradistinction to a moiety or part only. When land is conveyed to Husband and Wife, they do not take by moieties, but both are seised of the entirety. . Not only would such a route be unimaginative, it would bewasteful, since it would ignore the potential of local resources and ofalternative ways of life. A better route would be to develop a diversemanagement strategy for the Ulu Padas--i.e., one that would enable localpeople to continue their current activities of swidden and wet ricecultivation, cash-cropping and hunting, but would also allow theestablishment of protected areas This article refers to protected regions of environmental or cultural value. For the protected area of a cricket pitch, see cricket pitch.Protected areas , and the development of communityforests and agroforestry ag��ro��for��est��ry?n.A system of land use in which harvestable trees or shrubs are grown among or around crops or on pastureland, as a means of preserving or enhancing the productivity of the land. . (See Christensen (2002:248-249) for similarsuggestions regarding Sarawak.) This would enable the Lundayeh tomaintain their way of life, an important part of their identity, whileenabling economic development, also a local priority. Furthermore, sucha strategy has the potential for meeting the state's goals ofeconomic development and conservation. That a more diverse strategy is possible is suggested by theLundayeh's own response to the recent changes that they haveexperienced. In particular, the further development of fruit orchardsand of agroforestry systems has great potential. Elsewhere in Borneo,highland peoples have successfully developed agroforestry systems thatare economically successful, and at the same time, have enabledconservation of much of the local biodiversity biodiversity:see biological diversity. biodiversityQuantity of plant and animal species found in a given environment. Sometimes habitat diversity (the variety of places where organisms live) and genetic diversity (the variety of traits expressed and maintenance of manyfunctions of the forest, such as watershed protection The term watershed refers to an area of land that drains precipitation that falls on it to a common point. These points could be streams, lakes, etc. Precipitatoin falling on any part of a watershed can travel quickly on the surface of the land, known as surface runoff, or travel through (Fried 2000,Michon et al. 2000, Peluso 1996). The potential for the development ofagroforestry in the Ulu Padas warrants investigation, particularly inlight of the diversity of plant resources found here, including a wealthof local fruit varieties and species (Hoare Hoare may refer to: C. A. R. Hoare (b. 1934), British computer scientist , creator of Hoare logic Kelly Hoare (b. 1963), Australian politician Mike Hoare (b. 2002, Phillipps and Lamb1998). Agroforestry is also more compatible with tourism, in comparisonto intensive agriculture, for example. Tourism to the region ispresently at a low level, but both villages have been working to developthis further. The establishment of community forests and agroforestry could beencouraged in a number of ways. One priority is the settlement of landclaims so that local people have secure tenure. A possible tool is thatof subsidies, as these can have a major influence on the decisions madeby local people. Thus, subsidies could be provided for agroforestryinitiatives, rather than just for wet rice cultivation and cash cropssuch as coffee and tobacco, as is the case at the moment. Ultimately,what is needed is some imagination, particularly on the part ofagricultural extension Agricultural extension was once known as the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education. The field of extension now encompasses a wider range of communication and learning activities organised for rural people by officers and forest managers, so that there is ashift away from the assumption that the only options available foreconomic development are the traditional ones of logging, plantationsand intensive agriculture. Those people with a role in developing amanagement strategy for the region (from local people up to governmentlevel) need to consider what kind of future they want for the region,and whether they want the Ulu Padas to become indistinguishable frommany other places in Malaysia Malaysia(məlā`zhə), independent federation (2005 est. pop. 23,953,000), 128,430 sq mi (332,633 sq km), Southeast Asia. The official capital and by far the largest city is Kuala Lumpur; Putrajaya is the adminstrative capital. , or if they wish to maintain at least somepart of its biological diversity and rich cultural heritage.Appendix 1: Foods Eaten as Kikid by the LundayehA.VEGETABLESLUNDAYEHNAME FAMILY SCIENTIFIC NAMEDorey Acanthaceae Justicia obtusa Nees LindanKeduang Acanthaceae Pseuderanthemum acuminatissimum (Miq.) Radlk.Kuru (sia & bata) Amaranthaceae Amaranthus spp.Ufa' Araceae Alocasia sp.Ufa' Araceae Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott.Bunger Araceae Lasia spinosa (L.) ThwaitesSikarok / kelalang Araceae Schismatoglottis cf.batu calyptrata Zoll. & Mor.Butu / kelalang Araceae Schismatoglottis sp.Dinudur Basellaceae Basella alba L.Pau sia Blechnaceae Stenochlaena palustris (Burm.f.) Bedd.Sayur busak Brassicaceae Brassica chinensis Willd.Sayur peit / sawi Brassicaceae Brassica juncea L. Czern.Sedai /abi' Brassicaceae Brassica juncea L. Czern.Sesei Brassicaceae Brassica juncea L. Czern.Kailan Brassicaceae Brassica oleracea L.Kobis Brassicaceae Brassica oleracea L.Sayur picai Brassicaceae Brassica rapa L.Sayur putih Brassicaceae Brassica rapa L.Sayur gerinting Brassicaceae Brassica sp.Kaber Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.Sesila' Caricaceae Carica papaya L.Riep alud Cecropiaceae Poikilospermum sp.Riep Cecropiaceae Poikilospermum suaveolens (B1.) Merr.Siluk Commelinaceae Commelina paludosa Bl.Udu daya / Udu Compositae Crassocephalum crepidioidesnecing (Benth.) MooreKangkong Convolvulaceae Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.Ubi waar Convolvulaceae Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lamk.Tadjak fadey Cucurbitaceae Benincasa hispida (Thunb. ex Murray) Cogn.Timon Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sativus L.Timon abai Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sp.Timon belanda Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sp.Tabo Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita sp.Tadjak Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita sp.Sifula / petolak Cucurbitaceae Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb.Peria Cucurbitaceae Momordica charantia L.Tadjak cina Cucurbitaceae Unknown speciesTukul langit Dracaeneaceae Dracaena sp.Ubi kayu Euphorbiaceae Manihot esculenta CrantzCangkok manis Euphorbiaceae Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr.Patar Fabaceae Parkia sp.Peritak boncis Fabaceae Phaseolus vulgaris L.Peritak lebping Fabaceae Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC.Peritak kadang Fabaceae Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.Bua fayang Flacourtiaceae Pangium edule Reinw.Felali Hydrocotylaceae Centella asiatica (L.) UrbanGinjer Limnocharitaceae Limnocharis flava BuchenauLagka Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk.Pau bulat Oleanchaceae Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) SchottFeciruk Ophioglossaceae Helmintostachys zeylanica (L.) Kaulf.Busak liling Orchidaceae Bromheadia finlaysonianafelanuk / Busak (Lindl.) Miq.fayehPulu--bulu ee Poaceae Bambusa vulgaris Schrader ex WendlandPulu--bulu betung Poaceae Gigantochloa levis Merr.Pulu--bulu telang Poaceae Schizostachyum brachycladum KurzPulu--bulu poren Poaceae Schizostachyum latifolium GamblePulu--bulu Poaceae Schizostachyum lima (Blanco)sebiling MerrillBuyor (feci'; Rutaceae Citrus microcarpa Bunge;kasturi; Citrus maxima Burm. Merr.Lada rayeh / cabai Solanaceae Capsicum sp.Tomate Solanaceae Lycopersicon esculentum MillerBeliwan Solanaceae Solanum americanum MillerBiterung eit lipon Solanaceae Solanum capsicoides All.Biterung pulung Solanaceae Solanum ferox L.Biterong Solanaceae Solanum melongena L.Bua ulem Solanaceae Solanum torvum Sw.Ubi gentang Solanaceae Solanum tuberosum L.Lobak merah Umbelliferae Daucus carota L.Bata Urticaceae Elatostemma sp.Tengayen Urticaceae Pouzolzia hirta (B1.) Hassk.Pau abpa Woodsiaceae Diplazium esculentum Retz. Sw.Pau abu /Pau Woodsiaceae Diplazium polypodioides Bl.kapurB. EDIBLE STEM PITHLUNDAYEH FAMILY SCIENTIFIC NAMENAMEDeremeh Arecaceae Arenga brevipes Becc.Wei leludu Arecaceae Calamus convallium J. Dransf.Wei peit Arecaceae Calamus pogonacanthus Becc. ex Winkl.Riman Arecaceae Caryota mitis Lour.Wei tei' lal Arecaceae Ceratolobus concolor Bl.Wei kurad Arecaceae Daemonorops didymophylla Becc.Wei sia Arecaceae Daemonorops fissa B1.Belikakau / Arecaceae Daemonorops ingens J.Dransf.LekakauWei laasun Arecaceae Daemonorops ingens J.Dransf.Wei seseit Arecaceae Daemonorops longistipes BurretWei lingan Arecaceae Daemonorops sabut Becc.Wei laya Arecaceae Daemonorops sparsiflora Becc. / D. didymophylla Becc.Kinangan Arecaceae Eugeissona utilis Becc.Wei ser Arecaceae Korthalsia ferox Becc.Ilad Arecaceae Licuala valida Becc.Tangan / Bara Arecaceae Pinanga capitata Becc. ex GibbsBerang Arecaceae Pinanga sp. aff. brevipes Becc.Bisian Arecaceae Salacca vermicularis Becc.Siluk fulung Costaceae Costus speciosus (Koenig) R.M. Smith / C. globosus Bl.Bong Musaceae Musa sp.Sibak Musaceae Musa s p.Terabak Zingiberaceae Alpinia glabra Ridl. / A. nieuwenhuizii Val.Terabak fayeh Zingiberaceae Alpinia ligulata K.Schum.C. SPICES AND FLAVORINGSLUNDAYEH FAMILY SCIENTIFIC NAMENAMEBawang merah Alliaceae Allium cepa L.Bawang putih Alliaceae Allium sp.Kusei Alliaceae Allium sp.Don sup Apiaceae Apium sp.Piasau/Butan Arecaceae Cocus nucifera L.Bua terur garang / Clusiaceae Garcinia dryobalanoidesticuk mangai' PierreBua kecii / kayu Clusiaceae Garcinia parvifoliamein / tutuberu (Miq.) Miq.Bua lipau Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea lanceolata (Miq.) Muell. Arg.Kicui / Bawing Hydrocotylaceae Eryngium foetidum L.kedayan / don sopBawing Lamiaceae Mentha sp.Kedingau (Kayu Lauraceae Cinnamomum sp.manisTenem Lauraceae Lindera pipericarpa Boerl.Afa' fulung Menispermaceae Albertisia sp.Bua gitah Moraceae Ficus racemosa L. var. elongata (King) BarrettKayu bawing Myrtaceae Syzigium sp.Gesimau Poaceae Cymbopogon citratus Stapf.Lada Solanaceae Capsicum sp.Likua Zingiberaceae Alpinia galanga Willd.Kunus Zingiberaceae Curcuma domestica ValetonBua salleh / Bua Zingiberaceae Etlingera elatior (Jack)beludu /Baku ucat R.M. SmithBaku tubu / Baku Zingiberaceae Etlingera punicea (Roxb.)tubu nanong / R.M. SmithBaku derayauHalia Zingiberaceae Zingiber officinale RoscoeD. MUSHROOMSLUNDAYEH FAMILY SCIENTIFIC NAMENAMEAgau -- Unknown speciesAlit -- Unknown speciesAlub Amanitaceae Amanita sp.Aleng Pleurotaceae Pleurotus cf. djamor (Fr.) BoedijnBibir kelabet -- Unknown speciesBulu -- Unknown speciesBuda' Lentinaceae Lentinus squarrosulus Mont.Derian -- Unknown speciesDeseit -- Unknown speciesKecep Schizophyllaceae Schizophyllum commune Fr.Kekudan Lentinaceae Lentinus sajor-caju (Fr.) Fr.Lam -- Unknown speciesLangan -- Unknown speciesLikudan Lentinaceae Lentinus sajor-caju (Fr.) Fr.Liputung Hyrophoraceae Hyrocybe sp.Lopet Coprinaceae Coprinus sp.Merong -- Unknown speciesRata -- Unknown speciesSawan Sarcoscyphaceae Cookeina tricholoma (Mont.) KuntzeSia -- Unknown speciesTana' -- Unknown speciesTekudan -- Unknown speciesTelub -- Unknown speciesTerupong -- Unknown speciesTinunger Auriculariaceae Auricularia fuscosuccinea Mont. Henn.Tinunger becuk Auriculariaceae Auricularia delicata Fr. Henn.Tutung -- Unknown speciesUpul Lentinaceae Lentinus sajor-caju (Fr.) Fr.E. ANIMAL FOODSLUNDAYEH ENGLISH COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAMENAMEAkep Snails freshwater Unknown speciesArem Pangolin Manis javanicaBadan Small-toothed palm Arctogalidia trivirgata civetBakaa Boar Sus barbatusBecuk Pig-tailed macaque Macaca nemestrinaBeladan / ebu Turtle Unknown speciesBelug Stinging hornet / Unknown species Night waspBerangad Hose's langur / Grey Presbytis hosei leaf monkeyBeruang Sun bear Helarctos malayanusFalang alud Banded linsang Prionodon linsangFugeh Slow loris &/or Nycticebus coucang / Western tarsier? Tarsius bancanusKabuk / Kadarat Monitor lizard Varanus salvatorKara' arur Crab Unknown speciesKelabet Borneo gibbon Hylobates muelleriKelatang Moth larva Unknown speciesKubeng Flying lemur Cynocephalus variegatusKuyad Long-tailed macaque Macaca fascicularisLawid Fish Various speciesLabo afing / labo Squirrels Various speciesfulung / sigaaMenelen Python Python sp.Payau Sambar deer Cervus unicolorPayu Bearcat / binturong Arctictis binturongPelanuk Mouse deer Tragulus napuRibuan Masked palm civet Paguma larvataSeruang Cobra Opyhiophagus sp.Talau Barking deer Muntiacus muntjacTamai Frog Unknown speciesTerutung Porcupine--common Hystrix brachyuraTerutung badak Porcupine--thick- Thecurus crassispinis spinedTubang Leopard cat Felis bengalensisWet bulu Sago grub Rhynchophorus ferrugineusBIRDSSuit balud Green imperial Ducula aenea pigeon / Pink-necked green pigeonSuit bau ulun Malaysian peacock Polyplectron malacense / pheasant / Crested Lophura ignita firebackSuit keruak White-breasted Amaurornis phoenicurus waterhenSuit metor Green pigeon / Wild Treron sp. pigeonSuit sukur Spotted dove Streptopelia chinensisSuit tapiak Bulwer's pheasant Lophura bulweriEGGSSuit sukur Spotted dove Streptopelia chinensisSuit keruak White-breasted Amaurornis phoenicurus waterhenSuit pirit Sparrow Unknown speciesSeruang Cobra Ophiophagus sp.DOMESTICATED ANIMALSBerek Pig Sus scrofaKerbau Buffalo Bubalus bubalisLal--kampong Chicken--eggs & meatSapi Cow Bos indicusF. SHOP-BOUGHT KIKIDArmy rations (e.g. packets of meat curry)Tinned meatHot dogsDried meat (e.g. buffalo)Frozen meat (e.g. frozen beef tripe; chicken wings)Chicken eggsTinned fishSalted fishDried prawnsInstant noodlesPastaDried mushroomsSoup--tinnedSoya bean curdG. SHOP-BOUGHT FLAVORINGSDried anchovies (ikan bilis)Fermented fish paste (belacan)Monosodium glutamate (MSG)SaltSoya sauceTamarind pasteGarlicOnionsH. SNACK FOODS VarietiesArmy rations biscuits; jam; fruit in syrup;BreadCakes & biscuits--shop-boughtCakes (kui; noney; pinaram)-- banana; cassava; corn; jackfruit;home-made pumpkin;CrispsFruit--local various species (see Table 4)Fruit--shop-bought apples; durian; oranges; rambutan; watermelon;Instant noodlesPeanuts (kacan tana')Porridge (bubur) (delei; kacang; corn; beans; cassava; taro;ubi; ufa;Spreads (for bread & biscuits) condensed milk; honey; jam; margarine; peanut butter;Sticky rice (fadey mo)SugarSugar cane (tebpu)Sunflower seedsSweetsYoung shoots (periku) various species (see Tables 3 and 4)Appendix 2: Edible Fruit SpeciesLUNDAYEHNAME FAMILY SCIENTIFIC NAMEItaan -- Unknown speciesPuk -- Unknown speciesSerudang -- Unknown speciesTaken / Tetaken -- Unknown speciesTefuduk binei -- Unknown speciesWar aley -- Unknown speciesWar used -- Unknown speciesTeberecek buda' Actinidiaceae Saurauia cf. longistyla Merr.Teberecek Actinidiaceae Saurauia sp.Ringurin Anacardiaceae Baccaurea sp.Belunu (Malay) Anacardiaceae Mangifera caesia JackLam Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L.Felam Anacardiaceae Mangifera sp.Karamut Anacardiaceae Mangifera sp.Karung / Lam Anacardiaceae Mangifera sp.karungRengeh / Telaka ' Anacardiaceae Semecarpus bunburyanus GibbsDurian belanda Annonaceae Annona muricata L.(Malay)Nona (Malay) Annonaceae Annona reticulata L.Kelang batu Apocynaceae cf. Leuconotis sp.Kelang Apocynaceae Willughbeia coriacea Wall.Tecung ubeh Araceae Colocasia oresbia A.HayPiasau /Butan Arecaceae Cocus nucifera L.Wei kurad Arecaceae Daemonorops didymophylla Becc.Likakau / Arecaceae Daemonorops ingens J.Dransf.BelikakauBisian Arecaceae Salacca vermicularis Becc.Beleleh Bombacaceae Durio graveolens Becc.Lapun salat Bombacaceae Durio sp.Dalit Bombacaceae Durio sp.Lapun Bombacaceae Durio zibethinus MurrayKaber Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.Sesila' Caricaceae Carica papaya L.Kitong Clusiaceae Garcinia bancana (Miq.) Miq.Kapab Clusiaceae Garcinia cf. beccarii PierreKecii luang Clusiaceae Garcinia cf. parvifolia (Miq.) Miq.Terur garang / Clusiaceae Garcinia dryobalanoides PierreTicuk mangai'Mata lawid / Riaku Clusiaceae Garcinia forbesii KingUbpul Clusiaceae Garcinia maingayi Hook.f.Kecii /Kayu mein / Clusiaceae Garcinia parvifolia (Miq.) Miq.TutuberuTimon labo Cucurbitaceae Mukia javanica (Miq.) C.JeffreyIti /Eki' Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus ferruginea Rich.Uleg Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus sp.Lipau Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea lanceolata (Miq.) Muell.Arg.Pika Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea lanceolata (Miq.) Muell.Arg.Pugi Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea macrocarpa (Miq.) Muell.Arg.Siei Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea sp.Terur berek / Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea sp.Terur baka / Terurpa yoTuer Euphorbiaceae Bischofia javanica B1.Fatar Fabaceae Parkia sp.Fidaawee Fagaceae Castanopsis acuminatissima (B1.) A.DC.Berangan Fagaceae Castanopsis costata (Bl.) A.DC.Abok Fagaceae Castanopsis oviformis Soepadmo / C. cf. hypophoenicea (Seemen) SoepadmoUkem Fagaceae Lithocarpus psilophylla SoepadmoTateh Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia rukam Zoll. & Mor.Fayang Flacourtiaceae Pangium edule Reinw.Labpak Hypoxidaceae Curculigo latifolia Dryand.Talal Lauraceae Litsea garciae VidalTei 'suit bueng Loranthaceae Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Miq.Silaku / Tekang Melastomaceae Medinilla crassifolia (Reinw. ex Bl.) Bl.Sikali Melastomaceae Melastoma malabathricum L.Merikubit Meliaceae Aglaia korthalsii Miq.Terur suit Meliaceae Aglaia korthalsii Miq.Fika labo /Mata Meliaceae Aglaia odoratissima Bl.lawidLingat Meliaceae Lansium domesticum CorreaKelidang Moraceae Artocarpus cf. lanceifolius Roxb.Feriubi Moraceae Artocarpus cf. primackiana KochummenLagka Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk.Fudu Moraceae Artocarpus kemando Miq.Kiran / Tarap Moraceae Artocarpus odoratissimus BlancoTerur talau Moraceae Artocarpus sp.Talun Moraceae Artocarpus tamaran Becc.Likabong Moraceae Ficus cf. francisci H. Winkl.Feriboodok Moraceae Ficus cf. uncinata (King) Becc.Arid Moraceae Ficus megaleia CornerLunuk Moraceae Ficus parietalis BlumeGitah Moraceae Ficus racemosa L. var. elongata (King) BarrettLison okok Moraceae Ficus sp.Emel Moraceae Ficus stolonifera King / F. uncinata (King) Becc.Bong Musaceae Musa sp.Pidara / Myristicaceae Horsfieldia sp.SemendaraTereh / Decer Myrsinaceae Ardisia sp.pelanukWar ilang Myrsinaceae Embellia philippinensis A.DC.Lipet Myrtaceae Decaspermum parviflorum (Lam.) A.J. ScottJambu (Malay) Myrtaceae Psidium guajava L.Buau / Binuber Myrtaceae Syzigium foxworthianum (Ridl.) Merr. & PerryUber Myrtaceae Syzigium polyanthum (Wight) Walp.Jambu air (Malay) Myrtaceae Syzigium samarangense (Blume) Merr. & Perry; or S. aqueum (Burm.f.) AlstonMarkisa (Malay) Passifloraceae Passiflora edulis SimsPisang lalid Rosaceae Rubus benguetensis ElmerSerinit / Tabpa Rosaceae Rubus moluccanus L.serinitBidang Rosaceae Rubus rosifolius J.E.SmithBuyor Rutaceae Citrus microcarpa Bunge; C. maxima (Burm.) Merr.; C. sinensis (L.) Osbeck; C. medica L.Demicir Sapindaceae Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.) Leenh.Sia Sapindaceae Nephelium cuspidatum Bl. var. eriopetalum (Miq.) Leenh.Rambutan (Malay) Sapindaceae Nephelium lappaceum L.Beritem Sapindaceae Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Leenh.Fuder Sapindaceae Unknown speciesArau / Kuceng Tilliaceae Microcos cf. elmeri Merr.Sifei Urticaceae Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd.Terebak becuk Zingiberaceae Alpinia latilabris Ridl.Terebak labo / Zingiberaceae Alpinia ligulata K.Schum.Terebak fayehTerebak Zingiberaceae Alpinia nieuwenhuizii Val. / A. glabra Ridl.Tubu beritem Zingiberaceae Alpinia sp.Tubu bigan Zingiberaceae Amomum cf. polycarpum K.Schum.Salleh Zingiberaceae Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M. SmithTubu /Baku Zingiberaceae Etlingera punicea (Roxb.) R.M.derayau SmithTeladan Zingiberaceae Hornstedtia affinis Ridl.Teladan becuk / Zingiberaceae Hornstedtia scyphifera Steud.Teladan fayeh /Teladan bukiTubu becit Zingiberaceae Plagiostachys crocydocalyx (K.Schum.) B.L.Burtt & R.M.Sm.Tubu terutung Zingiberaceae Plagiostachys sp.Table 1: Comparison of Edible Plant Resources Used as Kikidby Peoples of Highland BorneoNO. OF KELABIT (PA IBAN (NANGA LUNDAYEHSPECIES: DALIH) SUMPA) (LONG PASIA & (Christensen, (Christensen, LONG MIO) 2002) 2002)MUSHROOMS 38 19 10VEGETABLES 129 195 108SPICES OR 34 61 19FLAVOURINGSTOTAL 201 275 137Table 2: Long Pasia Dietarv SurvevsYEAR OF 1993 1999-2000 (Hoare)SURVEY (Bennett) Survey Survey Survey Survey% MEALS 1: 2: 3: 4:CONTAINING:HUNTED MEAT 39 33 31 20 27RNER FISH 40 23 29 11 16YEAR OF 1999-2000 (Hoare)SURVEY Survey Survey% MEALS 5: %CONTAINING:HUNTED MEAT 19 26RNER FISH 21 20Table 3: Species used as PerikuLUNDAYEH NAME FAMILY SCIENTIFIC NAMEKayu telatang Anacardiaceae Campnosperma auriculatum Hook. f.Periku bata Urticaceae Oreocnide trinervis (Wedd.) Miq.Periku pelanuk / Periku Myrsinaceae Ardisia sp.abaiPeriku tuer Euphorbiaceae Bischofia javanica B1.Tebpu barok Begoniaceae Begonia sp.War ilang Myrsinaceae Embelia sp.Table 4: Fruits Most Conunonly Eaten by ChildrenLUNDAYEH NAME FAMILY SCIENTIFIC NAMEBisian Arecaceae Salacca vermicularis Becc.Kecii / Kayu mein / Clusiaceae Garcinia parvifolia (Miq.)Tutuberu Miq.Timon labo Cucurbitaceae Mukia javanica (Miq.) C. JeffreyIti / Eki' Elaea aceae Elaeagnus erru inea Rich.Lipau Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea lanceolata (Miq.) Muell.Arg.Tuer Euphorbiaceae Bischo a javanica BI.Sikali Melastomaceae Melastoma malabathricum L.Terur suit Meliaceae Aglaia korthalsii Miq.Fika labo / Mata lawid Meliaceae Aglaia odoratissima B1.Lingat Meliaceae Lansium domesticum CorreaGitah Moraceae Ficus racemosa L. var. elongata (King) BarrettBong Musaceae Musa sp.Lipet Myrtceae Decas ermum arviflorum (Lam.) A.J. ScottJambu (Malay) Myrtceae Psidium guava L.Buau Myrtceae Syzigium foxworthianum (Ridl.) Merr. & PerryJambu air (Malay) Myrtaceae Syzigium samarangense (Blume) Merr. & Perry; or S. aqueum (Burm.f.) AlstonMarkisa (Malay) Passifloraceae Passiflora edulis SimsPisan lalid Rosaceae Rubus benguetensis ElmerSerinit / Tabpa serinit Rosaceae Rubus moluccanus L.Bidang Rosaceae Rubus rosifolius J.E.SmithBuyor Rutaceae Citrus microcarpa Bunge; C. maxima (Burm.) Merr.; C. sinensis L. Osbeck; C. medica L.Teladan Zingiberaceae Hornstedtia affinis Ridl.Terebak Zingiberaceae Alpinia spp.Table 5: Forest Resources Frequently Brought Into CultivationLUNDAYEH NAME FAMILY SCIENTIFIC NAMEFLAVORINGKeduang Lauraceae Cinnamomum spAfa 'fulung Menispermaceae Albertisia spBua salleh /Bua Zingiberaceae Edingera elatior (Jack)beludu / Baku ucat R.M.SmithEDIBLE FRUITFelam Anacardiaceae Mangifera sp.Karamut Anacardiaceae Mangifera sp.Karung / Lam karung Anacardiaceae Mangifera sp.Beleleh Bombacaceae Durio graveolens Becc.Lapun salat Bombacaceae Durio sp.Dalit Bombacaceae Durio sp.Pugi Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea macrocarpa (Miq.) Muell.Arg.Siei Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea sp.Berangan Fagaceae Castanopsis costata (B1.) A.DC.Lingat Meliaceae Lansium domesticum CorreaKelidang Moraceae Artocarpus c^ lanceifolius Roxb.Feriubi Moraceae Artocarpus cf. primackiana KochununenKiran / Tarap Moraceae Artocarpus odoratissimus BlancoTalun Moraceae Artocarpus tamaran Becc.Sia Sapindaceae Nephelium cuspidatum Bl. var. eriopetalum (Miq.) Leenh.Beritem Sapindaceae Nephelium ramboutan-ake (Labill.) Leenh.EDIBLE STEM PITHWei sia Arecaceae Daemonorops fissa Bl.Wei seseit Arecaceae Daemonorops longistipes BurretWei lingan Arecaceae Daemonorops sabut Becc. (1) For a detailed description of the region's forest typesand their botanical composition, see Phillips Phil��lips?A trademark used for a screw with a head having two intersecting perpendicular slots and for a screwdriver with a tip shaped to fit into these slots. and Lamb (1998). (2) Included within my category of "vegetables" are greenleafy leaf��y?adj. leaf��i��er, leaf��i��est1. Covered with or having leaves.2. Consisting of leaves: Spinach is a leafy green vegetable.3. Similar to or resembling a leaf. vegetables, bamboo shoots, and tuberous roots A tuberous root is a modified lateral root, enlarged to function as a storage organ. It is thus different in origin but similar in function and coarse appearance to a tuber. , as well as flowers,seeds, and fruits. (3) The first dietary surveys are not included because the data onplant resources are incomplete. Subsequent to this, the survey formswere re-designed, enabling better data collection. Furthermore, thisdata does not reflect the importance of the different vegetation typesas sources of fruits, because of the under-recording of these foods inthe dietary surveys. Bibliography bibliography.The listing of books is of ancient origin. Lists of clay tablets have been found at Nineveh and elsewhere; the library at Alexandria had subject lists of its books. Appell, G.N. 1988 Costing Social Change. IN: M. R. Dove, ed., The Real andImagined Role of Culture in Development: Case Studies from Indonesia Indonesia(ĭn'dənē`zhə), officially Republic of Indonesia, republic (2005 est. pop. 241,974,000), c.735,000 sq mi (1,903,650 sq km), SE Asia, in the Malay Archipelago. .Honolulu Honolulu(hŏn'əl`l, hōnō–), city (1990 pop. : University of Hawaii Press The University of Hawaiʻi Press is a university press that is part of the University of Hawaiʻi. . pp. 271-284. Bennett, E.L., A.J. Nyaoi and J. Sompud 2000 Saving Borneo's Bacon: The Sustainability of Hunting inSarawak and Sabah. IN: J. G. Robinson John George Robinson was chief mechanical engineer of the Great Central Railway from 1900 to 1922. Prior to this, he designed locomotives for the Waterford and Limerick Railway (between 1884 and 1900). and E. L. Bennett, eds., Huntingfor Sustainability in Tropical Forests. New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Columbia UniversityPress Columbia University Press is an academic press based in New York City and affiliated with Columbia University. It is currently directed by James D. Jordan (2004-present) and publishes titles in the humanities and sciences, including the fields of literary and cultural studies, , pp. 305-324. Chin, S. C. 1985 Agriculture and Resource Utilization in a Lowland Rainforest rainforestLush forest, generally composed of tall, broad-leaved trees and usually found in wet tropical regions around the Equator. Despite increased awareness of the rainforests' importance during the late 20th century, they continue to be cleared. Kenyah Community. Sarawak Museum The Sarawak Museum is the oldest museum in Borneo. It was established in 1888 and opened in 1891 in a purpose-built building in Kuching, Sarawak. Sponsored by Charles Brooke, the second White Rajah of Sarawak, the establishment of the museum was strongly encouraged by Alfred Russel Journal 35 (56), Special Monograph No.4. Christensen, H. 1997 An Ethnobotanical Survey of the Flora Flora,in Roman religion, goddess of flowers and fertility. Her festival, the Floralia, Apr. 28–May 1, was celebrated with great gaiety and licentiousness. Used by Two Longhouse longhouseTraditional communal dwelling of the Iroquois Indians until the 19th century. The longhouse was a rectangular box built out of poles, with doors at each end and saplings stretched over the top to form the roof, the whole structure being covered with bark. Communities in Sarawak and an Evaluation of their Agronomic a��gron��o��my?n.Application of the various soil and plant sciences to soil management and crop production; scientific agriculture.ag Potentialfor Agroforestry Based Farming Systems. University of Aarhus HistoryIt was founded in 1928 as Universitetsundervisningen i Jylland ("University Teaching in Jutland") in classrooms rented from the Technical College and a teaching corps consisting of one professor of philosophy and four Readers of Danish, English, German and ,Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation dis��ser��ta��tion?n.A lengthy, formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the doctoral degree at a university; a thesis.dissertationNoun1. . 2002 Ethnobotany ethnobotany/eth��no��bot��a��ny/ (-bot��ah-ne) the systematic study of the interactions between a culture and the plants in its environment, particularly the knowledge about and use of such plants. of the lban and the Kelabit. Kuching Kuching(k`chĭng), city (1991 pop. 277,346), capital of Sarawak, Malaysia, in W Borneo and on the Sarawak River. It is the largest city in the state and a river port. : ForestDepartment Sarawak, Malaysia, NEPCon NEPCon Nature Ecology and People Consult , and University of Aarhus. Colfer, C. J. P. and H. Soedjito 1996 Foods, Forests, and Fields in a Bornean Rain Forest: TowardAppropriate Agroforestry Development. IN: C. Padoch and N. L. Peluso,eds., Borneo in Transition. People, Forests, Conservation, andDevelopment. Kuala Lumpur Kuala Lumpur(kwä`lə lm`pr), city (1990 est. pop. : Oxford University Press, pp. 162-186. Colfer, C. J. P. with N. Peluso and S. C. Chin 1997 Beyond Slash and Burn This article is about the agricultural practice of slash and burn. For the military tactic, see scorched earth. Slash and burn refers to the cutting and burning of forests or woodlands to create fields for agriculture or pasture for livestock, or for a . Buihling on Indigenous Indigenous may refer to: Indigenous church mission theory Indigenous peoples, population groups with ancestral connections to place prior to formally recorded (i.e. Management ofBorneo's Tropical Rain Forests. New York: The New York BotanicalGarden For the botanical garden in Queens, see .The New York Botanical Garden is a prestigious botanical garden in New York City. One of the premier botanical gardens in the United States, it spans some 240 acres of Bronx Park in the borough of The Bronx and is home to some of the . Dove, M. R. 1985 Swidden Agriculture in Indonesia. The Subsistence Strategiesof the Kalimantan Kantu'. Mouton moutonlamb pelt made to resemble seal or beaver. Publishers. Etkin, N.L. 1994 Eating on the Wild Side: The Pharmacologic pharmacologic/phar��ma��co��log��ic/ (-kah-loj��ik) pertaining to pharmacology or to the properties and reactions of drugs. pharmacological, pharmacologicpertaining to pharmacology. , Ecologic e��col��o��gy?n. pl. e��col��o��gies1. a. The science of the relationships between organisms and their environments. Also called bionomics.b. The relationship between organisms and their environment. , andSocial Implications of Using Noncultigens. Tucson Tucson(t`sŏn'), city (1990 pop. 405,390), seat of Pima co., SE Ariz.; inc. 1877. : University of Arizona (body, education) University of Arizona - The University was founded in 1885 as a Land Grant institution with a three-fold mission of teaching, research and public service. Press. Fried, S.G. 2000 Tropical Forests Forever? A Contextual Ecology ecology,study of the relationships of organisms to their physical environment and to one another. The study of an individual organism or a single species is termed autecology; the study of groups of organisms is called synecology. of BentianRattan Agroforestry Systems. IN: C. Zerner, ed., People, Plants andJustice: The Politics of Nature Consepwation. New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press, pp. 204-233. Harrisson, T. 1967 Ethnological eth��nol��o��gy?n.1. The science that analyzes and compares human cultures, as in social structure, language, religion, and technology; cultural anthropology.2. Notes on the Muruts of the Sapulut Sapulut is a town along Sapulut River in the Interior Division of Sabah, Malaysia. Mount Antulai (1713 metres) is located about 5 kilometres from the town. Nearby the town is the Batu Punggul limestone massif and cave, a popular spot for eco-tourists. River, Sabah.Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (RAS) was, according to its Royal Charter of August 11, 1824, established to further "the investigation of subjects connected with and for the encouragement of science, literature and the arts in relation to Asia. 40:111-129. Hladik, A., E.G E.G For Example . Leigh Leigh(lē), town (1991 pop. 42,627), Wigan metropolitan district, NW England, in the Greater Manchester metropolitan area. Industries include cotton and rayon mills, metalworks, and machinery and electrical goods plants. and F. Bourliere 1993 Food Production and Nutritional Value of Wild andSemi-domesticated Species--Background. IN: Hladik, C.M., A. Hladik, O.F.Linares Linares(lēnä`rās), city (1990 pop. 59,150), Jaén prov., S Spain, in Andalusia. The rich silver and lead mines nearby have brought prosperity to the city, which now has many metallurgical industries. Powder and dynamite are chief products. , H. Pagezy, A. Semple and M. Hadley Had��ley? , Henry Kimball 1871-1937.American composer and conductor whose romantic works include operas, such as Bianca (1918), symphonies, and chamber music. , eds., Tropical Forests,People and Food. Biocultural Interactions and Applications toDevelopment. Paris: UNESCO UNESCO:see United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. UNESCOin full United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization , pp. 127-138. Hoare, A.L. 2002 Cooking the Wild: The Role of the Lundayeh of the Ulu Padas(Sabah, Malaysia) in Managing Forest Foods and Shaping the Landscape.University of Kent at Canterbury Canterbury,city (1991 pop. 34,046) and district, Kent, SE England, on the Stour River. Tourism, services, and retail are the city's main industries. There is also some light manufacturing. Canterbury is famous as the long-time spiritual center of England. In 597, St. , Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. Janowski, M. 1995 The Hearth-Group, the Conjugal Pertaining or relating to marriage; suitable or applicable to married people.Conjugal rights are those that are considered to be part and parcel of the state of matrimony, such as love, sex, companionship, and support. Couple and the Symbolism SymbolismIn art, a loosely organized movement that flourished in the 1880s and '90s and was closely related to the Symbolist movement in literature. In reaction against both Realism and Impressionism, Symbolist painters stressed art's subjective, symbolic, and decorative of theRice Meal among the Kelabit of Sarawak. IN: J. Carsten and S.Hugh-Jones, eds., About the House: Levi-Strauss L����vi-Strauss? , Claude Born 1908.French social anthropologist and leading exponent of the theory of structuralism. His works include Structural Anthropology (1958) and Totemism (1962).Noun 1. and Beyond. Cambridge Cambridge, city, CanadaCambridge(kām`brĭj), city (1991 pop. 92,772), S Ont., Canada, on the Grand River, NW of Hamilton. It was formed in 1973 with the amalgamation of Galt, Hespeler, and Preston, all founded in the early 19th cent. :Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP) is a publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534, and one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). , pp. 84-104. Michon, G., H. de Foresta, Kusworo, and P. Levang 2000 The Damar Damar:see Dhamar, Yemen. Agroforests of Krui KRUI can refer to: KRUI-FM, an FM radio station located in Iowa City, Iowa KRUI (AM), an AM radio station located in Ruidoso Downs, New Mexico , Indonesia: Justice for ForestFarmers. IN: C. Zerner, ed., People, Plants and Justice: The Politics ofNature Conservation. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 159-203. Payne, J. and J. Vaz 1998 Ulu Padas--Final Report and Recommendations. SBCP--IPPATechnical Report. Sabah: Ministry of Tourism and EnvironmentalDevelopment. Peluso, N. L. 1996 Fruit Trees and Family Trees This is an index of family trees available. It includes noble, politically important and royal families as well as fictional families and thematic diagrams. EuropeCounts of Flanders Counts of Hainaut Counts of Holland in an Anthropogenic an��thro��po��gen��ic?adj.1. Of or relating to anthropogenesis.2. Caused by humans: anthropogenic degradation of the environment. Forest:Ethics of Access, Property Zones, and Environmental Change in Indonesia.Comparative Studies in Society and History 38:510-548. Phillipps, A. and A. Lamb 1998 The Botanical Richness of the Ulu Padas. SBCP--IPPA TechnicalReport. Sabah: Ministry of Tourism & Environmental Development. Alison Alisonbetrays old husband amusingly with her lodger, Nicholas. [Br. Lit.: Canterbury Tales, “Miller’s Tale”]See : Adultery Hoare Department of Anthropology anthropology,classification and analysis of humans and their society, descriptively, culturally, historically, and physically. Its unique contribution to studying the bonds of human social relations has been the distinctive concept of culture. University of Kent Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NS UK