For Gods or men? A reappraisal of the function of European Bronze Age shields.

For Gods or men? A reappraisal of the function of European Bronze Age shields. Introduction From heraldic he��ral��dic?adj.Of or relating to heralds or heraldry.he��raldi��cal��ly adv.Adj. 1. coats of arms Here is a list of articles that discuss and/or depict coats of arms. Articles in bold face are specifically about a particular coat of arms. Arms for corporations, etc.The United Kingdom to the badge of US police officers, theshield is a powerful symbol of authority and strength. In Westernsociety it is an assertive if non-aggressive representation of power, afossil from the heart of combats throughout the millennia whereedged-weaponry dominated the battlefields of Europe. Today the shieldsof the Bronze Age Bronze Age,period in the development of technology when metals were first used regularly in the manufacture of tools and weapons. Pure copper and bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, were used indiscriminately at first; this early period is sometimes called the in Europe are still visually striking artefacts seenin museums around the continent, highly decorated and pleasing to theeye. Though dull and tarnished with age when rediscovered, the shieldsof metal would once have been polished to a rich golden hue. In important research carried out nearly five decades ago, JohnColes conducted experimental tests on replica shields of the Bronze Age,innovatively combined with a catalogue of the then known shields ofEurope, so integrating methodical analysis with practically informedinterpretation (Coles 1962). Coles developed a two-tier model offunctionality, arguing that leather and wooden shields were functional,whereas shields of bronze were not, a model which has been widelyaccepted. The purpose of this paper is to re-examine the basis for thisdistinction using new experiments and metric data from the survivingshields. It will be demonstrated that a strict functional divide bymaterial of construction is inappropriate and that both metal andorganic shields could be highly effective articles of defensiveweaponry. Conversely, it will be argued that shields of any material mayhave functioned in non-martial roles and that we need not conceive theirmultiple functions as being mutually exclusive Adj. 1. mutually exclusive - unable to be both true at the same timecontradictoryincompatible - not compatible; "incompatible personalities"; "incompatible colors" . As with contemporaryswords and spears, shields would have had a plurality of meanings insociety and so any single item may at various times have been a symbolof identity, a tool of combat or a votive offering an offering in fulfillment of a religious vow, as of one's person or property.See also: Votive . Evidence for organicshields of wood and leather survives today only from Ireland, thoughartistic depictions from Iberia in particular indicate they were oncemuch more widespread (Coles 1962; Harding 2007). Metal shields are foundthroughout much of Europe, and in particular in the British Isles British Isles:see Great Britain; Ireland. ,Germany and Scandinavia (Coles 1962; Raftery 1982; Osgood 1998; Harding2000, 2007; Uckelmann 2006, forthcoming). The shield in context As a weapon on the field of battle, the shield was used in unisonwith offensive weapons. There was a wide range of attack weaponsavailable to the Bronze Age warrior. The first swords emerged around1600 BC, and were light, thin, rapidly deployable weapons offering alimited repertoire of cutting and thrusting attacks, typically dubbed'dirks' and 'rapiers' in English language English language,member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages (see Germanic languages). Spoken by about 470 million people throughout the world, English is the official language of about 45 nations. literature(Burgess & Gerloff 1981; Ramsey 1989, 1995; Molloy 2006, 2007).These were superseded around 1200 BC by a range of leaf-shaped swordsoriginating in the Balkans and northern Italy Northern Italy comprises of two areas belonging to NUTS level 1: North-West (Nord-Ovest): Aosta Valley, Piedmont, Lombardy, Liguria North-East (Nord-Est): Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Veneto, Trentino-Alto Adige/S��dtirol, Emilia-Romagna (Cowen 1955, 1966; Catling1961; Kilian-Dirlmeier 1993) which spread in various forms throughoutmost of Europe, from Greece in the southeast to Ireland in thenorth-west (Cowen 1951; Eogan 1965; Bridgford 1997, 2000; see alsovarious volumes in the Prahistorische Bronzefunde series IV). Morenumerous again than the sword, the spear was a weapon which perhaps besttypifies the diversity of the Bronze Age battlefield (Ehrenberg 1977;Hockmann 1980; Avila 1983; Ramsey 1989; Rihovsky 1996; Davis 2006).Spears came in all shapes and sizes throughout the Bronze Age, bur itwas typical for two and three forms to be current in any given area atthe same time, and these usually occurred in a variety of sizes (Ramsey1989). The Bronze Age axe is demonstrably a tool well suited to cuttingdown trees (Mathieu & Meyer 1997), bur its role as an implement ofviolence is suggested by its deposition in hoards containing nothingelse but weapons and occasional personal ornaments (in Ireland, forexample, see Eogan 1983: nos. 14, 17, 43, 76, 95, 98, 110, 119, 155).One also finds a wide variety of daggers and stone mace-heads whichwould have served well in combat. One thing which most of these weaponshave in common is that they only required the use of one hand, and theshield is an obvious candidate to fill the other. Shields range in sizefrom around 300mm to over 700mm in diameter (Coles 1962; Molloy 2006;Uckelmann forthcoming), and the materials used vary greatly in theirweight and mechanical properties. Thus these were weapons which hadimmense diversity in their combat applications and, by extension, theirmodes of use. Bronze Age shields Radiocarbon dating of a wooden shield-mould from Kilmahamogue inIreland puts the emergence of leather shields into the first hall of thesecond millennium BC (Hedges et al. 1991 ; Waddell 2000: 240). This isthe era when spears increase in complexity and swords first emerge, sothis date fits well with the martial milieu of the rime. Coles (1962)meticulously reproduced the first replica leather shields and found themto be highly effective defensive weapons. These shields were made fromsheets of leather cut to a circular shape and impressed on a woodenformer or mould, giving them their distinctive shape and decoration.This 'decoration' serves to corrugate cor��ru��gate?v. cor��ru��gat��ed, cor��ru��gat��ing, cor��ru��gatesv.tr.To shape into folds or parallel and alternating ridges and grooves.v.intr. the otherwise flatstructure of the shield, giving additional structural support in muchthe same way that thin sheets of steel are corrugated cor��ru��gate?v. cor��ru��gat��ed, cor��ru��gat��ing, cor��ru��gatesv.tr.To shape into folds or parallel and alternating ridges and grooves.v.intr. for use in roofingto afford them lightness yet strength. Leather shields once moulded toshape can then be boiled or baked and impregnated with wax to furtherstrengthen them. While two wooden shield formers are known from Ireland,only one actual leather shield survives, the example from Cloonbrin(Figure 1). This is a 4-5mm thick piece, measuring some 500mm acrosswith three impressed ribs of 7-10mm depth and occasionally small bossesaround a central boss (Molloy 2006). This latter boss covers the handand is the most prominent and exposed element of a shield, so it is nosurprise to find an additional 2mm-thick layer of leather sewn on overthis to re-enforce it and so protect the hand of the user behind. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Leather shields were not the only organic forms to survive, andagain from Ireland we have two examples of shields made from wood.Throughout much of history, from the Romans to the Normans, wood was amaterial of choice for shields as its fibrous structure absorbs blowsand is resistant to cutting (especially against the grain). The Irishshields were made from alder wood, formed of single blocks carved fromplanks cut longitudinally from the trunk of the tree. The two survivingshields differ markedly in their form, the broad example is fromAnnadale, probably extending 655mm or more in its original diameter andaveraging 13mm in thickness. This was a quite robust object weighing inat just over 1.8kg, but it was still only about half the weight ofAnglo-Saxon and Viking shields of the same diameter (Underwood2007:136). As with the leather shields, it had ribs decorating its outerface (purely decorative/symbolic) and a central boss giving ampleprotection to the handle and the hand of the wielder. The wooden shield from Cloonlara is also made of alder and carvedfrom a longitudinally split plank, but its proportions mark it as anunwieldy 'shield-shaped' lump of wood. It is a mete 450mm indiameter yet it is 30-40mm in thickness and it weighs nearly 4.5kgdespite its very thin handle. As with the Annadale shield, this pieceretains the raised concentric ribs interrupted by a notch seen on theChurchfield shield former (although U-shaped in this case rather thanthe V-shaped notches of the latter), though the [sup.14]C datingevidence places it several centuries later to around 1200 BC (Hedges etal. 1993). Shields made from bronze survive in greater numbers in Ireland thantheir organic counterparts, and from the rest of Europe only shieldsmade from bronze survive, though they come in a wide range of shapes,sizes and decorative motifs (Coles 1962; Uckelmann forthcoming). What isparticularly interesting is that the different shields made from thismedium impose very different performative per��for��ma��tive?adj.Relating to or being an utterance that peforms an act or creates a state of affairs by the fact of its being uttered under appropriate or conventional circumstances, as a justice of the peace uttering patterns on the user, andindeed represent distinctly different combat modalities. Workinginitially from the Irish dataset, at the smallest end of the scale,there are three shields from Athenry, Lough Lough(lŏkh, lŏk). For names of Irish lakes and inlets beginning with "Lough," see second part of element; e.g., for Lough Corrib, see Corrib, Lough. See lake. Gara and Athlone (ofAthenry-Eynsham type), which are all around 300mm in diameter, and aretypically in the region of 0.8-1.5mm in thickness, and weigh around 1kg,not much heavier than a contemporary sword (Eogan 1965; Molloy 2006). Infunctional terms, the Nipperwiese shields which are found from Britainacross to Poland are as thick as the Irish Athenry-Eynsham shields andwhile marginally broader, they indicate a wide currency of robust smallshields in many areas of Europe (Coles 1962; Needham 1979; Raftery 1982;Uckelmann 2006, forthcoming). The larger bronze shields are in the region of 650-700mm indiameter, markedly broader than the smaller variants, though inthickness they are somewhat thinner, falling in around 0.6-1.2mm inthickness (0.7-0.9 on average), with notable differences in thicknessoccurring within millimetres of any particular reading (e.g. the LochGur shield shown in Figure 2). Unlike the flat-rimmed Athenry-Eynshamshields, the Nipperwiese and Yetholm types have substantial rolled rims,many with the metal folded around a thick bronze wire. Using two IrishYetholm examples, the rim thickness is thus increased to some 4.5mm on ashield from Barry Beg and 5.35mm on the Lough Gur Lough Gur is a lake in County Limerick, Ireland near the town of Bruff. The lake forms a horseshoe shape at the base of Knockadoon Hill and some rugged elevated countryside. It is one of Ireland's most important archaeological sites. piece, significantlyreinforcing the rim and overall structural integrity of such shields.The Barry Beg shield at 1.868kg is typical of this class, and it isinteresting to note how closely this weight correlates with thefunctional wooden shield from Annadale. The trade off between coverage,manoeuvrability Noun 1. manoeuvrability - the quality of being maneuverablemaneuverabilitymobility - the quality of moving freelyweatherliness - (of a sailing vessel) the quality of being able to sail close to the wind with little drift to the leeward (even in a and durability for bronze shields seems to be optimisedaround 0.7-0.8mm thickness and 1.5-2kg in weight; adding a mere 0.1mmthickness adds as much as 325g extra weight. Yetholm type shields wereparticularly popular in Britain and Ireland, though they are found asfar afield as Denmark. The British Harlech shields were of a thicknesscomparable (Uckelmann forthcoming) to the replica Yetholm shielddiscussed below, though slightly less elaborately decorated. TheHerzsprung type which was found typically in Germany and Scandinaviawere similar to the Yetholm and Harlech types in many cases, althoughsome few of this type are perhaps too thin to have been serviceableweapons. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] The function of shields A shield is a piece of defensive weaponry, not an element ofdefensive armour. The marked difference in this is that a shield must bemanipulated by the user in order for it to perform its function, as itspresence alone rarely affords sufficient protection. Another aspect ofviewing this as a weapon is that it can be used not only to defendagainst attacks, but is a central component in making attacks, primarilythrough striking and control of space. Even large and potentiallycumbersome shields such as the Roman scutum scutum/scu��tum/ (sku��tum)1. scute.2. a hard chitinous plate on the anterior dorsal surface of hard-bodied ticks.scutum1. scute.2. a protective covering or shield, e.g. were highly versatileweapons allowing for the 'buzz-saw' of the Roman shield-wallusing short swords, yet legionaries were also required to learn a numberof offensive strikes using their shields (Coulston 2007: 42). A largeshield offers a good degree of static coverage to the user by virtue ofits presence, and is ideally suited to cooperative styles of fightingand forming a shield-wall as found in Bronze Age (Molloy 2006),Classical Greek (Van Wees 2004), Roman (Coulston 2007), Viking (Siddorn2000), Anglo-Saxon (Underwood 2001) and Byzantine (Nicolle 1992)battlefield strategies. The role of larger shields in individual combatsis seen from Roman gladiators to medieval single combats (Talhoffer2000; Coulston 2007: 44-6). One common aspect of any of these contextsof combat is that the shields had sufficient manoeuvrability to allowthe user to manipulate them to afford personal protection while also tothrust forward with them into an opponent's space. To block an incoming attack a shield is rarely used as a staticimpediment but is rather used actively to redirect the force of theattack, loosely characterised as 'slapping' the attackingweapon so that the strike is received obliquely to the face of theshield rather than allowing its full force to be transmitted to itsstructure. It was desirable to avoid direct blows to the edge of theshield, since this increased the chances of splitting wood or cuttinginto leather or metal, because the maximum force of a strike lands onthe minimum surface area. In battle, such blows could lead shields tofail, and the user would likely be killed. Such was the nature ofcombat. Being 'pro-active' with a shield by stepping forward intoan opponent's space with the shield leading can effectively throwthem off-balance or inhibit their ability to make an aggressive strike.Leading with the shield edge (rather than its face) presents a thinalmost blade-like element with which to strike at an opponent,particularly to the face or neck. This is a mode of use very well suitedto shields of smaller diameter, as exemplified by the medieval targe targe?n. ArchaicA light shield or buckler.[Middle English, from Old French; see target.] orbuckler, a shield typically in the region of 300-400mm in diameter.These shields must be used in very dose coordination with the offensiveweapon and require a broad panorama of movement in order to protectagainst attacks, having to protect a sweep of 180 [degrees] and more.The medieval descriptions of their use place them not only in singlecombat, but in mass attacks, as illustrated by Machiavelli'sdescription of the battle of Barletta: 'When they came to engage, the Swiss pressed so hard on theirenemy with their pikes, that they soon opened their ranks; bur theSpaniards, under the cover of their bucklers, nimbly rushed in upon themwith their swords, and laid about them so furiously, that they made avery great slaughter of the Swiss, and gained a complete victory'(Machiavelli 1560: 66). New experiments with replica shields In Coles' earlier trials (1962) one of the importantdeductions was that some bronze shields from Britain and Scandinavia inparticular were simply too thin to be used effectively in combat. The0.3mm example manufactured by Coles after the shield from Coveney Fenwas easily cut through by a Bronze Age sword Bronze Age swords appear from around the 17th century BC, evolving out of the dagger. The 3rd millennium Sumerian "sickle-sword" is an early predecessor of the backsword. , and from this it has beenwidely perceived that bronze was unsuitable for the manufacture ofeffective shields or armour. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] On the other hand, at 0.3mm, the Coles replica was, approximatelytwo to three times thinner than a typical Yetholm type shield, and fourto five times thinner than most AthenryEynsham and Nipperwiese shields.While extremely thin Bronze shields may not have been functional incombat, the thicker ones were well suited to this end. Several examplesfrom Ireland and Britain still bear physical testimony to their use inthis environment, e.g. the Long Wittenham shield, the Barry Beg shield(Figure 3) and the Cloonbrin shield (Needham 1979; Osgood 1998; Molloy2006). To examine further the question of potential performance ofshields in combat, the author carried out experiments using replicashields, one of leather and three of copper, complemented by use-wearanalysis of surviving pieces from Ireland. Leather shield At 3.5-4mm, the leather shield was slightly thinner than theCloonbrin shield (original 4-5mm). After repeated right-handed strikes(c. 25 strokes), particularly to the upper right-hand quadrant (lookingface-on) the leather began to degrade and bend back on the arm of theuser. However, small and light shields of this form are typically usedto actively deflect blows so that the blade's edge runs along theface of the shield. Cutting attacks parried in this fashion lightlyincised the face of the replica leather shield without severe damage.Damage was inflicted when strikes were made squarely to the edge of theshield, cutting into it by up to 57mm (Figure 4). The four types ofdamage inflicted in testing were: (1) degradation of the leather; (2)incisions to the face of the shield; (3) punctures as a result ofstabbing attacks; and (4) cuts through the perimeter of the shield alongthe edge. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] A use-wear study of the single surviving example from Cloonbrinexhibited all four forms of the damage discussed above. When the shieldis held in a fist grip (the hand roughly parallel to the ground), theupper right-hand quadrant of the Cloonbrin shield has considerableleather degradation similar to the replica shield (compounded bysubsequent deterioration of the material). In this same quadrant thereis a cut to the edge of the shield similar to those observed on thereplica shield and coming at the correct trajectory to be inflicted by aright-handed user. Slices and a few minor puncture marks are visible tothe face of the shield also mirroring the damage on the replica shield. The Bronze shields Three copper shields were made, two with rolled rims and one with aflat rim, to a mean thickness of 0.9mm, reflecting the majority ofshields from Europe with thickness in the range of 0.6-1mm (Molloy 2006;Uckelmann forthcoming). The form of one replica followed Athenry-Eynshamtype shields (320mm diameter), another, the typical Nipperwiese design(378mm diameter), while the final piece imitated Yetholm varieties(710mm diameter). The replica shields were manufactured from purecopper, a material mechanically similar but slightly less hard than truebronze piece (tin-bronze being unavailable). The shields were testedagainst replica bronze swords manufactured using authentic alloys anddimensions by the author and Neil Burridge of Bronze Age Craft(www.bronze-age-craft.com/swordcasting.htm). The copper shields tested were more effective than the leather onein most regards. All three pieces stood up to extensive impact testingwith no damage rendering them unusable. The smaller two in particularhave been subjected to repeated tests and public demonstrations (notablyat the Sixth World Archaeological Congress The World Archaeological Congress (WAC) is a non-governmental, not-for-profit organization which promotes world archaeology.Established in 1986, WAC holds an international Congress every four years to promote the exchange of results from archaeological research; professional ) since their manufacture, andapart from needing minor 'cosmetic' repairs, they are stillperfectly functional. As with the leather shield, cuts and thrusts tothe face of the shields when deflecting blows only inflicted minimaldamage. The Yetholm shield provided such a broad area of contact thatmost cuts merely incised the face slightly, though some caused a slightbuckling of the face of the shield. It should be noted that in the interests of safety, all shieldswere held stationary, an unrealistically static mode of use whichmaximises the impact force of a strike because there is no relativemovement allowed between the two weapons. Cuts to the edge of theunrolled examples cut 11-15mm into the edge of the shield, but did notrender terminal damage. On the shields with a rolled edge, an importantpurpose of this device became clear. When the sword impacted on the edgeof the shield, the broader contact area meant that the sword did not cutinto the shield (Figure 5) but the energy was dispersed by the rollededge rolling further and denting (rather than being cut). It is notablethat on the shield from Barry Beg, there is a wire running inside thisrolled edge which is c. 2.3mm in diameter, making the rolled edge of5.3mm external thickness almost solid metal. [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] [FIGURE 6 OMITTED] Spear thrusts and throws sometimes penetrated the face of thereplica copper shields, but the spear never passed through the face ofthe shield to represent a threat to the user, an effect similar to thatobserved on the Nipperwiese shield from Long Wittenham (Needham 1979:115). Likewise, bronze- and flint-tipped arrows shot from a 35lb bow at10m distance did not penetrate through any of the shields. The area ofthe shield which most suffered in the case of the copper pieces was theboss area--when strikes landed here they caused more significant damageand heavily dented the boss (Figure 6), indicating that organic paddingor leather gauntlets would have been likely accessories for the shieldhand. It is notable that on the shields from Lough Gara and Barry Beg inIreland, the boss is completely missing. This may be the result ofcombat use rather than post-depositional activity, though it isdifficult to tell given the absence of the damaged portion. The BarryBeg shield has two other areas of damage caused by weapons thrusts, andat least two areas (now partly corroded) at the edge of the shield whichappear to have been damaged by cutting attacks. It is very likely thatthis damage may be combat related, though the non-combat damage on theSouth Cadbury (Coles et al. 1999) and Thames shields (Coles 1962: 187,Yetholm no. 2) are reminders that not all apparent damage to a defensiveweapon came during combat. Discussion It is risky to make assumptions about the 'value' ofshields in Bronze Age society based on our appreciation of theirworkmanship or aesthetics, much as we cannot do so for contemporaryswords as we know these were often simply recycled for their intrinsicmetallic worth (Bradley 1990: 12). Starting with pre-fabricated coppersheet and with modern hammers and saws, it was possible for the authorto manufacture a piece similar to the Lough Gur shield in seven hours.Given the greater expertise of ancient smiths and the use of specialisedtools and formers, from ingot ingotMass of metal cast into a size and shape such as a bar, plate, or sheet convenient to store, transport, and work into a semifinished or finished product. The term also refers to a mold in which metal is so cast. to finished product may have taken aslittle as three or four days in the Bronze Age. This is less rime than acontemporary sword, and requires less precise skills, from my experiencemaking both weapon types, so it would be facile to argue that only themore powerful, wealthy or influential warriors had access to bronzeshields. We must therefore be careful that the aesthetic impact of theshield on the modern observer, coupled with the comparative rarity oftheir survival, does not create a false sense of the value of theseobjects in prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to . It is difficult in this sense to consider them asignifier sig��ni��fi��er?n.1. One that signifies.2. Linguistics A linguistic unit or pattern, such as a succession of speech sounds, written symbols, or gestures, that conveys meaning; a linguistic sign. of differential access to resources, and consequentlyemblematic em��blem��at��ic? or em��blem��at��i��caladj.Of, relating to, or serving as an emblem; symbolic.[French embl��matique, from Medieval Latin embl of ranking within or beyond a peer-group of warriors. On the other hand, the wooden shield from Cloonlara was a veryheavy lump of wood with little intrinsic value Intrinsic Value1. The value of a company or an asset based on an underlying perception of the value.2. For call options, this is the difference between the underlying stock's price and the strike price. , the product of a minimalinvestment of labour and was nonutilitarian as a weapon. It would befair to say that in this case, we have an organic shield which wasmanufactured for a purpose other than combat and that in this sense itwas symbolic representation of a shield, without venturing into thequestion of to what end this would have served socially. The woodenAnnadale shield on the other hand had clear combat potential in purelymechanical terms. The story of the role of the shield in society is morecomplex than such a division between 'definite weapon' versus'symbolic object' and this emphasises that we cannot simplyuse construction material to underscore categorisations or contexts ofuse. Conclusion It has been demonstrated that bronze shields were potentiallyeffective in combat, while accepting that not all examples which survivetoday were designed to this end. Whatever their materials, shields ofdifferent sizes were used in different ways (Figure 7). While theAthenry-Eynsham and Yetholm shields were each made from bronze, theirmodes of use were very different indeed. It is true that the sheet metalshields were likely to fail through protracted pro��tract?tr.v. pro��tract��ed, pro��tract��ing, pro��tracts1. To draw out or lengthen in time; prolong: disputants who needlessly protracted the negotiations.2. combat use, bur this goestoo for the wooden and leather shields, and one in six of the Irishswords have breakages which rendered them useless (Eogan 1965; Molloy2006). Weapons could and did fail in battle and their mechanicallimitations would have affected the modes of combat that prevailed inthe Bronze Age. A holistic approach holistic approachA term used in alternative health for a philosophical approach to health care, in which the entire Pt is evaluated and treated. See Alternative medicine, Holistic medicine. to the study of Bronze Age weaponryshould place all categories of weapon in an integrated framework, asthey were originally designed to work with and against each other inBronze Age society. This does not denigrate den��i��grate?tr.v. den��i��grat��ed, den��i��grat��ing, den��i��grates1. To attack the character or reputation of; speak ill of; defame.2. the role of shields assymbolic items, bur underlines the fact that symbolism and display ofthis nature must be referring to a well understood martial reality whichempowered the symbols with effective meaning. Thus we do not need totake an 'either/or' approach to the functions of shields basedon their fabric, but can appreciate them as being functional andmeaningful on many levels. [FIGURE 7 OMITTED] Acknowledgements This research was carried out under funding from the Irish ResearchCouncil for Humanities and Social Sciences. I am much indebted to MarionUckelmann for sharing important data on all European Bronze Age shieldswith me prior to its comprehensive publication in the PrahistorischeBronzefunde series, and for many helpful recommendations for improvingthis article. I am also very grateful to Joanna Bruck for her advice onan early draft of this paper. Thanks are also due to Anthony Harding,Alan Peatfield, Kristian Kristiansen, Philip de Souza De Souza or D'Souza is a common Portuguese family name. Although it is still quite common outside Portugal -- especially in Brazil and India --, Souza is the old spelling of present-day Sousa. and the anonymousreviewer of this paper who have provided much appreciated help andadvice in this undertaking. Revised: 5 January 2009; Accepted: 5 May 2009; Revised: 11 May 2009 References AVILA, R.A.J. 1983. Bronzene Lanzen- und Pfeilspitzen dergriechischen Spatbronzezeit. (Prahistorische Bronzefunde V/l). Munich:C.H. Beck. BRADLEY, R. 1990. The passage of arms. 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NICOLLE, D. 1992. Romano-Byzantine armies fourth to ninthcenturies. Oxford: Osprey osprey(ŏs`prē), common name for a bird of prey related to the hawk and the New World vulture and found near water in most parts of the world. Publishing. OSGOOD, R. 1998. Warfare in the late Bronze Age of north Europe(British Archaeological Reports International Series 694). Oxford:Archaeopress. RAFTERY, B. 1982. Two recently discovered bronze shields flora theShannon basin. Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland The Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland is a learned society based in Ireland, whose aims are 'to preserve, examine and illustrate all ancient monuments and memorials of the arts, manners and customs of the past, as connected with the antiquities, language, literature and 112: 5-17. RAMSEY, W.G. 1989. Middle Bronze Age weapons in Ireland.Unpublished PhD dissertation. Queen's University Belfast. --1995. Middle Bronze Age metalwork: are artefact See artifact. studies dead andburied?, in J. Waddell & F. Shee-Twohig (ed.) Ireland in the BronzeAge proceedings of the Dublin conference, April 1995: 49-62. Dublin: TheStationery Office. RIOVSKY, J. 1996. Die Lanzen, Speer- und Pfeilspitzen in Mahren(Prahistorische Bronzefunde V/2). Stuttgart: Steiner. SIDDORN, J.K. 2000. Viking weapons and warfare Purnell's illustrated encyclopedia of modern Weapons and Warfare is a partwork originating with Purnell in 1967-1969, republished under the Phoebus brand.Its contributors and editors included Bill Gunston (aviation), Ian V. . Stroud: Tempus. TALHOFFER, H. 2000. Fechtbuch (translated and edited by M. Rector).London: Greenhill books. UCKELMANN, M. 2006. Schutz, Prunk und Kult--zur Funktionbronzezeitlicher Schilde. Anodos: Studies of the Ancient world 4-5:243-9. --Forthcoming. Die Schilde der Bronzezeit in Nord-, West- undZentraleuropa (Prahistorische Bronzefunde III/4). Stuttgart: Steiner UNDERWOOD, R. 2001. Anglo-Saxon weapons and warfare. Stroud: Tempus --2007. The early Anglo-Saxon shield: reconstruction as an aid tointerpretation, in B.P.C. Molloy (ed.) The cutting edge: studies inancient and medieval combat: 134-44. Stroud: Tempus. VAN WEES, H. 2004. Greek warfare., myths and realities. London:Duckworth. WADDELL, J. 2000. The prehistoric archaeology History is the study of the past using written records. Archaeology can also be used to study the past alongside history. Prehistoric archaeology is the study of the past before historical records began. of Ireland. Wicklow:Wordwell Press. Barry Molloy Barry Molloy (born 28 November 1983, Derry, Northern Ireland) is an Irish footballer who plays in midfield for Derry City F.C. in the Football League of Ireland. CareerMolloy spent time with Derby County F.C. , UCD UCD University College DublinUCD User-Centered DesignUCD University of California at DavisUCD University of Colorado at Denver (Denver, CO)UCD University of Colorado at DenverUCD Unicode Character Database School of Archaeology, University College Dublin,Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland (Email: barrymolloy@gmail.com)