A high-status Anglo-Saxon settlement at Flixborough, Lincolnshire.

A high-status Anglo-Saxon settlement at Flixborough, Lincolnshire. Excavations at Flixborough, Lincolnshire (1989-91) revealed animportant Anglo-Saxon settlement. Here the various interpretations arediscussed, ranging from monastic to 'magnate'.Between 1989 and 1991, excavations at Flixborough on the south bankof the Humber estuary, near Scunthorpe, revealed exceptional remains ofa predominantly Middle to Late Saxon settlement [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE1 OMITTED]. The finds included the complete or partial foundations ofover 30 buildings, boundaries and other structural features, togetherwith an extremely rich collection of artefacts and a vast quantity ofanimal bones. Despite the fact that it was not possible to uncover thefull extent of the settlement, the range and quality of the evidencefrom the site provides a much-needed opportunity to establisharchaeological criteria for defining the nature and character ofhigh-status Mid to Late Saxon settlements, both within the area of theHumber estuary and more widely in England.Finds from the Anglo-Saxon settlement at Flixborough were firstdiscovered in 1933, when Derrick Riley unearthed Unearthed is the name of a Triple J project to find and "dig up" (hence the name) hidden talent in regional Australia.Unearthed has had three incarnations - they first visited each region of Australia where Triple J had a transmitter - 41 regions in all. fired clay annular annular/an��nu��lar/ (an��u-ler) ring-shaped. an��nu��laradj.Shaped like or forming a ring.annularring-shaped. loomweights, animal bones and pottery, although he thought that theartefacts suggested a RomanoBritish settlement (Riley's unpublishednotebook). The site was identified as dating from the Anglo-Saxon periodduring an archaeological evaluation by Mr Kevin Leahy There are several people by the name Kevin Leahy: Kevin Leahy, member of the Western Australian Legislative Council Kevin Leahy, backing musician Kevin Leahy, the famous $100T2 of RX-7 lore. www.rx7club. (Keeper ofArchaeology, Scunthorpe Museum), in advance of sand quarrying in 1988.Eleven badly preserved inhumation graves were uncovered. None of theburials were furnished with grave-goods, although iron fittings indicatethat one of the interred individuals had been placed in a wooden coffin.A geophysical survey Geophysical survey refers to the systematic collection of geophysical data for spatial studies. Geophysical surveys may use a great variety of sensing instruments, and data may be collected from above or below the Earth's surface or from aerial or marine platforms. was subsequently carried out to the north of thegraves but the results were inconclusive. Further evaluation by trialtrenching was then undertaken as a control exercise by the HumbersideArchaeology Unit (now the Humber Archaeology Partnership). This resultedin the discovery of substantial, well-preserved Anglo-Saxon settlementremains. As a consequence of these finds, English Heritage English Heritage is a non-departmental public body of the United Kingdom government (Department for Culture, Media and Sport) with a broad remit of managing the historic environment of England. It was set up under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983. funded theexcavation of a sample of the probable Anglo-Saxon settlement area, witha view to defining the character, date and importance of the site. Thesettlement evidence dated mainly from the 7th to loth loth?adj.Variant of loath.lothAdjectivesame as loathAdj. 1. loth centuries AD, butadditional indications suggest that the area in the immediate vicinityof the excavations acted as a continuous focus of settlement from theRoman period to the High Middle Ages. The account below provides aninterim summary of the nature of the archaeological remains from thesite, based on a preliminary assessment of their importance and someearly results of a detailed post-excavation analysis and publicationprogramme, funded by English Heritage (Loveluck 1996).Character of the settlement remains and the occupation sequenceThe main focus of Anglo-Saxon occupation was situated on the summitof a windblown sand spur, overlooking the floodplain floodplain,level land along the course of a river formed by the deposition of sediment during periodic floods. Floodplains contain such features as levees, backswamps, delta plains, and oxbow lakes. of the River Trent,8 km south of the Humber estuary. The sand spur had built up against theLincolnshire liassic Li`as´sica. 1. (Geol.) Of the age of the Lias; pertaining to the Lias formation. escarpment escarpmentor scarp,long cliff, bluff, or steep slope, caused usually by geologic faulting (see fault) or by erosion of tilted rock layers. An example of a fault scarp is the north face of the San Jacinto Mts. in California. , which lies immediately to the east ofthe Flixborough excavations. FIGURE 2 gives an indication of the localtopography viewed from the remains of a 13th-century church (AllSaints All´ Saints`1. The first day of November, called, also, Allhallows or Hallowmas; a feast day kept in honor of all the saints; also, the season of this festival. ), located on the escarpment overlooking the site. The foundationsof at least 3O buildings were uncovered, in most cases constructed onlong-lived building plots, superimposed over their demolishedpredecessors [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 3 OMITTED]. Periodically, however,the use of the excavated area for habitation HABITATION, civil law. It was the right of a person to live in the house of another without prejudice to the property. 2. It differed from a usufruct in this, that the usufructuary might have applied the house to any purpose, as, a store or manufactory; whereas was interspersed by majorphases of dumping, associated with refuse accumulation and deliberateraising of the ground level for construction purposes, by filling alarge hollow in the central area of the site. The cyclical exploitationof the spur for housing and dumping has provided unprecedentedstratified stratified/strat��i��fied/ (strat��i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat��i��fiedadj.Arranged in the form of layers or strata. deposits from a Middle to Late Saxon rural settlement. Therefuse and demolition deposits, in particular, have yielded exceptionalcollections of artefacts and animal bones, both in regard to theirquality, quantity and excellent state of preservation. In addition tothe buildings and refuse dumps, other components within the excavatedarea of the settlement include a boundary ditch, running on an east-westalignment from the western limit of the occupation area; metalledpathways, linking different building plots; and activity areas,associated with craftworking and ovens. The extent of thesuperimposition In graphics, superimposition is the placement of an image or video on top of an already-existing image or video, usually to add to the overall image effect, but also sometimes to conceal something (such as when a different face is superimposed over the original face in a of buildings and other structural features seems to be areflection of the concerted planning of settlement layout, whether by anindividual or collective authority. This spatial organization wasprobably influenced by the unstable soil conditions prevalent towardsthe slopes of the spur, thereby promoting the re-use of a limited numberof building plots upon the summit.Hints toward the extent of the area covered by Anglo-Saxon remains inthe vicinity of the 1989-91 site were provided both during theexcavation itself and by further evaluation and survey work. Therecovery of the partial foundations of several buildings running beneaththe eastern edge of the excavated area, together with pits and gulliescontaining Mid to Late Saxon ceramics on the gentle southern slope ofthe spur, demonstrated that the Anglo-Saxon settlement area continued tothe east and south of the excavated site, probably encompassing thecemetery found in 1988 [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4 OMITTED]. A MiddleSaxon date is presumed for the graves on the grounds of their east-westalignment, their proximity to the settlement and analogous coffinfittings from East Yorkshire East Yorkshire could be East Yorkshire (UK Parliament constituency) (created 1997) East Riding of Yorkshire (UK Parliament constituency) (1832–1885) East Yorkshire (district), a former district It is also a popular error for the , at the 7th-century cemetery atGarton-'Green Lane Crossing' (Mortimer 1905: 254-6) and the8th to 9th-century cemetery at Thwing (Manby forthcoming). In additionto the latter indications of settlement activity, a scatter of Mid toLate Saxon pottery, collected during field-walking to the north of theexcavations, and the identification of a strong magnetic anomaly Magnetic Anomaly may refer to: Kursk Magnetic Anomaly Tycho Magnetic Anomaly duringgeophysical survey immediately to the east, also suggest Anglo-Saxonactivity to the north and east of the excavated area.Preliminary stratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat analysis and a spot-dating exercise, basedon the ceramic evidence from the site, has allowed the provisionaldating of the main phases of activity within the excavated area (Vince& Young 1994; Loveluck 1996). Other than sporadic traces of aRomanoBritish settlement in the vicinity, suggested by several pits andvarious finds, the earliest evidence for a settlement on the spur isprovided by the Anglo-Saxon remains. Between the 7th and early 9thcenturies, three major phases of construction are apparent from thesuperimposed buildings and other structures [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 5OMITTED]. An episode of refuse dumping then occurred during the firsthalf of the 9th century, when the vast majority of the earlier buildingshad been demolished. Subsequently, a new series of buildings wasconstructed on the same alignment as their antecedents between the midand late 9th century, followed by a second major dumping phase,characterized by the deposition of vast quantities of animal bones. Thisbone horizon was followed by the accumulation of 'dark soils'over large parts of the excavated area. These dark deposits containedthe latest Anglo-Saxon pottery types on the site, together with animalbones and metalwork, and may have resulted from the levelling of middenson the periphery of an adjacent habitation focus, during the 10thcentury. More detailed stratigraphic and artefact See artifact. analysis will furtherrefine the phasing and temporal span of this Anglo-Saxon occupationsequence. The discovery of an oven, pits and an east-west running ditchcutting into the dark soils, containing 12th-and 13th-century pottery,suggests that the excavated area remained on the periphery of asettlement during the Anglo-Norman period. The main focus of Late Saxonand Medieval occupation may lie immediately above the excavations to theeast, around the now ruined 13th-century church of All Saints and thedeserted Medieval village Deserted medieval village (DMV) sites are former settlements which have been abandoned for one reason or another over the years, usually leaving little but the remains of earthworks or ghostly cropmarks. of North Conesby [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4OMITTED]. After the 14th century, the spur previously occupied by theAnglo-Saxon settlement was inundated by windblown sand, settling indrifts up to 2 m deep in places. This occurrence resulted in the areabeing abandoned for settlement purposes.The buildingsThe complete and partial building foundations uncovered atFlixborough, together with other building remains such as daub, charredtimber fragments and structural ironwork, allow for the identificationof a series of architectural styles and construction techniques usedbetween the 7th and late 9th centuries AD. Variants of post-hole,continuous trench and sill beam foundations are evident among thebuildings and all are rectangular in shape. They were constructed on anorthwest-southeast alignment with dimensions ranging from 9x5.30 m to19.70x6.50 m. Internal fired-clay hearth bases were also present in themajority of cases, often located in the eastern halves of buildings. Theposition of doorways, however, was only evident in a small number ofinstances. FIGURE 6 illustrates one example of each of the differentarchitectural styles exhibited among the building plans. Buildings 1, 10and 13 are exceptional in that they are the only examples of theirfoundation types. Overall, however, there does not appear to be anychronological progression in the use of particular earth-fast foundationstyles during different phases in the occupation sequence.At this early stage of analysis, buildings 1, 7 and 13 appearparticularly noteworthy. Building 1 has been identified as a possiblechurch or mortuary chapel, based on parallels at other Anglo-Saxonsites, such as Yeavering (HopeTaylor 1977: 73-4), Whirhorn (Hill 1991:18) and Burnham (Coppack 1986: 39-41; FIGURE 1). The building isrectangular, 13.60x6.20 m in size, with a cobble and padstone wallfooting at ground level, possibly for a timber sill, and a series ofopposing post-holes in its long walls. The position of the doorway wasalso located, situated in the middle of the southern long wall. Foureast-west aligned graves were cut into the floor of this building,containing three adults and one infant, while an additional burial wasplaced immediately to the southwest of the building, on the samealignment. All the burials had been interred as extended inhumations,with one exception which was placed in a crouched position. Building 1,however, underwent' a change in character with regard to itsfunction, during the lifetime of the Anglo-Saxon settlement. Theconstruction of hearths and the accumulation of occupation deposits overthe original floor surface indicate its use as a dwelling during thelater stages of its existence. In terms of its architectural affinities,the cobble and padstone footing of building I is similar to the graveland dry stone footings of other Middle Saxon buildings, also thought tohave had timber superstructures. Comparable examples have been found atHartlepool (Daniels 1988: 204); Dunbar (Holdsworth 1991: 315-16); Whitby(Cramp cramp,painful uncontrollable contraction of a muscle or group of muscles. The type that results from cold, strain, or disturbance of circulation (as experienced by swimmers) is eased by massage and the application of heat. 1993: 65-6); Whithorn (Hill 1991: 18-23) and at the Beech HouseHotel site in Dorchester-on-Thames (Rowley & Brown 1982: 13-15).However, unlike the vast majority of stone-founded buildings yetdiscovered, building I at Flixborough and 'Hall lob' atWhithorn are significantly larger than those encountered on the othersites mentioned above.Building 7 also merits description because of its exceptional nature,as the largest building found at Flixborough - being 19.70x6.50 m insize. It was rectangular and possessed a continuous trench foundation,with limestone post-settings regularly spaced along its long walls.Building 7 was constructed in the latest housing phase in the occupationsequence. The character of the foundations and the size of this buildingare almost identical to those exhibited by 'building A' fromthe Mid-Late Saxon phase of the settlement at West Cotton, Raunds, inNorthamptonshire (Cadman & Foard 1984: 18). Other buildings withsimilar dimensions and foundation characteristics have also been foundat North Elmham North Elmham is a village (population 1428[1]) in Norfolk about 8 km (5 miles) north of East Dereham on the west bank of the River Wensum. It was the site of the pre-Norman catherdral of Elmham, seat of the Bishop of East Anglia until 1075. , Norfolk (Wade-Martins 1980: 137) and Wicken Bonhunt Wicken Bonhunt is a small village in Essex. Its most notable feature is Wicken House, a centre renowned as residential centre for gifted students, which runs weekend courses and a summer school. ,Essex (Wade 1980: 97-8; Marshall & Marshall 1991: 37-41). On thebasis of the provisional phasing of the Flixborough settlement and theavailable dating information from North Elmham, it appears that theselarge halls date from the Mid-Late Saxon period, the Flixborough andNorth Elmham examples being assigned a mid to late 9th- and 10th-centurydate range respectively. Building 7 at Flixborough, like the other largehalls at Raunds and North Elmham, does not possess a hearth on a floorsurface at ground level. This absence may be explained by thepossibility that these buildings had raised floors or more than onestorey.The artefact and environmental evidenceThe circumstances of site formation, involving the use of the spurfor habitation phases and major refuse dumping episodes, have ensuredthe survival of stratified deposits containing an exceptional range andquantity of Middle Saxon artefacts, and a vast collection of faunalremains in the form of animal bones. The assemblage of thousands ofartefacts includes decorated dress accessories [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE7 OMITTED], domestic utensils, horse-riding gear, an exceptionalcollection of iron tools, relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +accagriculture and a range of crafts[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 8a OMITTED], textile-manufacturing equipment,regionally-produced pottery and a large quantity of lead artefacts andmelt. Industrial debris from iron, lead and fine metalworking was alsopresent, together with less conclusive evidence CONCLUSIVE EVIDENCE. That which cannot be contradicted by any other evidence,; for example, a record, unless impeached for fraud, is conclusive evidence between the parties. 3 Bouv. Inst. n. 3061-62. of glassworking in theform of a blue glass tessera tessera:see mosaic. , cullet cul��let?n.Scraps of broken or waste glass gathered for remelting, especially with new material.[Probably alteration of collet, neck of glass left on the blowing iron, from French, and possible glassworking residues.The site also yielded imports from southern England, including thelargest collection of Ipswich-type ware north of East Anglia East Anglia(ăng`glēə), kingdom of Anglo-Saxon England, comprising the modern counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. It was settled in the late 5th cent. by so-called Angles from northern Germany and Scandinavia. , as well asa large quantity of imports from northern France, the Low Countries andGermany. The continental imports comprised wheel-thrown ceramics, glassvessels, coinage and lava quern stones. In addition, iron, copper-alloyand silver styli sty��li?n.A plural of stylus. were recovered from refuse dumps and from the fills ofditches and pits. Other exceptional artefacts included two inscribedobjects - a lead plaque incised with the names of seven individuals,both male and female, and an alphabet ring, showing the first 11 lettersof the Latin alphabet Latin alphabetor Roman alphabetMost widely used alphabet, the standard script of most languages that originated in Europe. It developed before 600 BC from the Etruscan alphabet (in turn derived from the North Semitic alphabet by way of the Phoenician and [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 9 OMITTED]). The plaquewas pierced by rivet rivet,headed metal pin or bolt whose shaft is passed through holes in two or more pieces of metal, wood, plastic, or other material in order to unite them by forming the plain end into a second head. holes along its outer edges and may originally haveformed part of a reliquary reliquary(rĕl'əkwĕr`ē), receptacle containing the relics of saints and other sacred objects of the Christian religion. Reliquaries were often designed in shapes that reflected the nature of their contents, such as hands, shoes, . It had been discarded within an occupationdeposit associated with building 10, the mid to late 9th-centurysuccessor of building 1.A significant number of residual finds were also evident among theMiddle Saxon deposits, particularly the refuse dumps. A small quantityof Romano-British pottery and metalwork was recovered, together with acollection of Early Anglo-Saxon dress Anglo-Saxon dress refers to the clothing worn by the Anglo-Saxons from the time of their migration to Britain in the 5th century until the beginning of the Norman Conquest, when Norman fashions from the Continent began to have a major influence in England. accessories, including 6th-centurysmall long brooches and a great square-headed brooch broochOrnamental pin with a clasp to attach it to a garment. Brooches developed from the Greek and Roman fibula, which resembled a decorative safety pin and was used as a fastening for cloaks and tunics. ; and 7th-centuryannular brooches. The occurrence of this residual material probablyindicates the existence of as yet unrecognized or undiscoveredRomano-British and Early Anglo-Saxon settlement foci in the vicinity.Sampling of the biological remains from the site resulted in therecovery of a vast quantity of vertebrate remains, in the form of animalbones (Dobney et al. 1992: 24-6). The largest component of this materialconsisted of hand-collected bones, comprising approximately 35,000identifiable bones and a further 140,000 bone fragments. A broad rangeof domesticated do��mes��ti��cate?tr.v. do��mes��ti��cat��ed, do��mes��ti��cat��ing, do��mes��ti��cates1. To cause to feel comfortable at home; make domestic.2. To adopt or make fit for domestic use or life.3. a. and wild animals WILD ANIMALS. Animals in a state of nature; animals ferae naturae. Vide Animals; Ferae naturae. are represented among this boneassemblage - their significance for the interpretation of theprovisioning of the Anglo-Saxon settlement is discussed below. Inaddition to this evidence of the exploitation of larger animals, partialanalysis of a small proportion of the bulk-sieved samples has alsodemonstrated that the remains of birds are present in the majority ofcases; while fish bones were also present in certain instances,providing indications of the consumption of a range of riverine riv��er��ine?adj.1. Relating to or resembling a river.2. Located on or inhabiting the banks of a river; riparian: "Members of a riverine tribe ... andmarine fish (Dobney 1994: 194-5). In contrast to the excellent bonepreservation on the site, the soil conditions proved hostile to thesurvival of more delicate organic materials. Apart from a large numberof oyster shells, hand-collected plant and invertebrate invertebrate(ĭn'vûr`təbrət, –brāt'), any animal lacking a backbone. The invertebrates include the tunicates and lancelets of phylum Chordata, as well as all animal phyla other than Chordata. remainsconsisted only of small quantities of hazelnut shells, egg shells offowl and snail shells. The examined soil samples also yielded limitedamounts of charcoal, charred seeds and herbaceous her��ba��ceous?adj.1. Relating to or characteristic of an herb as distinguished from a woody plant.2. Green and leaflike in appearance or texture. stem fragments (Dobneyet al. 1994: 213-15).The provisioning of the settlementThe combined evidence provided by the preliminary analysis of theenvironmental and artefact remains demonstrates that the inhabitants ofFlixborough were sustained by the products of a mixed agriculturalregime, supplemented by wild fowling, fishing and the hunting of otherwild fauna. Arable cultivation and grain processing are indicated by therecovery of an iron plough coulter, an iron hoesheath, charred seedgrains of cereals and pulses, and a large collection of rotary quernfragments - many imported from the Eiffel region of Germany. Preliminaryexamination of the hand-collected animal bones indicates that cattle,sheep/goat, pigs, geese and chickens predominate among the domesticatedanimals This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details.This article has been tagged since September 2007.This is a list of animals which have been domesticated by humans. , with horses and cats present in smaller numbers. Detailedanalysis of the vertebrate remains will provide a wide range ofinformation on animal husbandry animal husbandry,aspect of agriculture concerned with the care and breeding of domestic animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, hogs, and horses. Domestication of wild animal species was a crucial achievement in the prehistoric transition of human civilization from practices, age ranges and seasonalityrelating to animal slaughter and butchery techniques, and the relativeimportance of different animals for dietary purposes.The wild fauna and flora exploited were derived from a variety ofenvironmental habitats. The bones of a large number of cranes, togetherwith those of various ducks, suggest wildfowling in the Trentfloodplain, while the remains of deer, hare, woodcock woodcock:see snipe. woodcockAny of five species (family Scolopacidae) of plump, sharp-billed migratory birds of damp, dense woodlands in North America, Europe, and Asia. and hazelnutshells indicate exploitation of woodland or more open landscape. Therecovery of a large quantity of oyster shells, together with theoccurrence of marine and riverine fish bones and net-sinkers, alsodemonstrate access to foodstuffs foodstuffsnpl → comestibles mplfoodstuffsnpl → denr��es fpl alimentairesfoodstuffsfood npl → from the adjacent river and the opensea. Also notable among the evidence for exploitation of marineresources is an unusual number of cetacean cetaceanAny of the exclusively aquatic placental mammals constituting the order Cetacea. They are found in oceans worldwide and in some freshwater environments. Modern cetaceans are grouped in two suborders: about 70 species of toothed whales (Odontoceti) and 13 species of (porpoise porpoise,small whale of the family Phocaenidae, allied to the dolphin. Porpoises, like other whales, are mammals; they are warm-blooded, breathe air, and give birth to live young, which they suckle with milk. , dolphin and pilotwhale pilot whaleAny of one to three species (genus Globicephala, family Delphinidae) of toothed whale found in all oceans except the Arctic and Antarctic, also called caa'ing whale for a roaring sound it makes when stranded. ) skeletal remains (Dobney pets comm.). Cetacean skull andvertebrae VertebraeBones in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the body that make up the vertebral column. Vertebrae have a central foramen (hole), and their superposition makes up the vertebral canal that encloses the spinal cord. fragments have been found in several dump and ditch deposits.Further analysis of the vertebrate remains in conjunction with detailedstratigraphic and spatial analysis (Data West Research Agency definition: see GIS glossary.) Analytical techniques to determine the spatial distribution of a variable, the relationship between the spatial distribution of variables, and the association of the variables of an area. will hopefully identify whether theexploitation of whales took place throughout the history of theAnglo-Saxon settlement, or whether it was limited to particular phasesof occupation. It is uncertain whether they were obtained as beachedcarcases around the Humber estuary, or whether they were deliberately oraccidentally caught during estuarine es��tu��a��rine?adj.1. Of, relating to, or found in an estuary.2. Geology Formed or deposited in an estuary.Adj. 1. estuarine - of or relating to or found in estuariesestuarial and sea fishing trips.The majority of the domesticated livestock and wild fauna consumed atFlixborough is likely to have been derived from the immediate hinterlandof the settlement, although the wealth indicated by the quality and vastnumber of artefacts from the site is suggestive of suggestive ofDecision making adjective Referring to a pattern by LM or imaging, that the interpreter associates with a particular–usually malignant lesion. See Aunt Millie approach, Defensive medicine. a high-status centrewhich may have been served by renders from other sub-ordinate landholdings comprising a composite or multiple estate (Jones 1979: 10-11;Hooke 1986: 82). This redistribution within an estate unit could havebeen supported by common rights of access to certain resources and theprocurement of commodities via exchange (Hooke 1981: 36; Loveluck 1994:333-4). Comparison of the changing patterns of consumption ofdomesticated and wild faunal resources throughout the Anglo-Saxonoccupation sequence should help to identify any changes in the characterand extent of relationships with the settlement's hinterland whichmay reflect alterations in the nature of any territories linked to it,between the 7th and 10th centuries.CraftworkingThe products of the agricultural economy provided most of the rawmaterials to support the craftworking activities practised on thesettlement. Well-preserved tools and industrial debris have beenrecovered, relating to textile manufacture, carpentry, leatherworking,boneworking, ironworking and non-ferrous metalworking. All the stages oftextile manufacture are represented: fibre preparation of wool or flaxis reflected by iron spikes from heckles/ carding combs; spinning andweaving is demonstrated by spindle whorls, pin-beaters and over 750 loomweights, and the embellishment of cloth is indicated by shears, needlesand thimbles (Walton Rogers 1997: 1753). Carpentry is reflectedprimarily by an exceptional collection of woodworking tools, althoughdressed charred timber fragments also provide hints of carpentrytechniques. The tools include axes, adzes (including T-shapedvarieties), shaves, spoon bits for drills, rasps, wedges and chisels.Many of these artefacts were recovered from a hoard, housed in two largelead tanks (Leahy 1994: 352; FIGURES 8a & 8b). Specialist iron toolsalso provide the evidence of leather-working, namely slickers forcleaning and stretching hides, lunette lu��nette?n.1. Architecturea. A small, circular or crescent-shaped opening in a vaulted roof.b. A crescent-shaped or semicircular space, usually over a door or window, that may contain another window, a knives, and creasers for thefinishing of leather products (Ottaway 1992: 554; Ottaway 1994: 105).Iron, copper-alloy and lead working are represented by a combination oftools and manufacturing debris. Both iron smelting and smithing remainswere recovered, smelting being indicated by smelting slag, whilesmithing slags and partly worked objects reflected smithing. Acollection of tools associated with ironworking includes punches, filesand a small pair of tongs - although the latter could have been used fornon-ferrous metalworking. The copper-alloy and lead working evidence isprovided by waste debris, in the form of sheet metal offcuts, melt andscrap artefacts. Likewise, limited indications of boneworking also occurin the form of partly worked objects.Trade and exchange contactsThe range of imported commodities found at Flixborough shows that theinhabitants of the settlement were extensively integrated withinexchange networks with other parts of England and continental Europe,seemingly facilitated via the East Midlands and Humber river There are several rivers in the world called the Humber River: Humber River (estuary), England, on the eastern coast Humber River (Newfoundland), near Corner Brook in Canada systems andNorth Sea coastal communication routes. The presence of four variants ofMaxey-type pottery reflects either the regional exchange of these waresthroughout Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire, during the 8th and 9thcenturies - probably for the products they contained - or,alternatively, they could represent a common handmade pottery traditionwithin this region at that time (Vince & Young 1994: 56-62).Wheelthrown Late Saxon Torksey-type and Lincoln pottery wares alsodemonstrate inclusion within Lincolnshire exchange networks between themid 9th and 10th centuries (Adams Gilmour et al. 1988: 77-123; Young1989: 225-7). At an inter-regional level, the large quantity of leadrecovered from Flixborough also suggests links with the Peak District,the main lead producing region of Middle Saxon England. A charter of AD835 records the obligation of an eorldorman Humberht to send 300 solidi sol��i��di?n.Plural of solidus. worth of lead from Wirksworth in the Peak District to Canterbury, as anannual render to the Archbishop (Hart 1975: 102), and the relativeabundance of lead on Mid-Late Saxon settlements such as Flixborough,Riby and Lurk Lane, Beverley [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 1 OMITTED])probably reflects the role of the Rivers Trent and Humber in thetransport of this commodity to other parts of eastern England duringthis period (Loveluck 1994: 287 - 8). Similarly, the discovery of over250 sherds of Ipswich-type ware at Flixborough, the largest collectionof this pottery yet discovered in northern England, also reflects therole of the Humber estuary as a trading interface with southeasternEngland during the 8th and 9th centuries. Other sites with Ipswich-typeware in the hinterland of the estuary include Riby, Holton le Clay,Barrow-upon-Humber, Lurk Lane, Beverley and Wharram Percy (Didsbury1994: 237; Hayfield forthcoming; Watkins 1991: 71-3 and Didsbury pers.comm.).Links with continental Europe are evident throughout the Middle Saxonoccupation phases at Flixborough, but after the mid 9th century,continental imports no longer seem to have been available. From the endof the 7th century, the inhabitants of the settlement were in receipt ofwheelthrown Seine valley pottery, together with other wheelthrown redand black-burnished wares from northern France or Belgium, while smallquantities of Badorf ware were also imported during the 9th century(Vince & Young 1994: 58-60; Hodges 1981: 68-84). Other importsinclude the previously mentioned lava quern stones from the Eiffelregion of Germany and fragments of 89 glass vessels. The only comparablecollection of vessel glass from northern England is that derived fromFishergate, the Middle Saxon trading and craftworking settlement at York(Hunter & Jackson 1993: 13339). Indeed, the range of importedcommodities at Flixborough, between the late 7th and mid 9th century,very closely parallels that from Fishergate (Kemp 1996: 72-4). Thesilver coinage from Flixborough also reflects links with southernEngland and northwestern Europe. The coins include early 8th-centurysceattas, ultimately derived from Frisia, and West Saxon broad pennycoinage, minted between the mid 9th and late 10th centuries AD. Only oneMercian penny was identified - a late 8th-century issue of Offa. TheWest Saxon coinage, including issues of Aethelwulf (AD 855-865),Aethelberht (AD 858-866), Alfred (AD 871-880) and Edward the Martyr Edward the Martyr,c.962–978, king of the English (975–78), son of Edgar by his first wife. Despite the opposition of some of the nobles, Edward succeeded his father to the throne and was crowned. (AD975-979), appears to have been the only coinage reaching Flixboroughafter the mid 9th century and represents the maintenance of thelong-standing east coastal links with southern England at a time oftencharacterized by Scandinavian disruption.In comparison with most Middle Saxon rural settlements discovered innorthern England, the range and quantity of imports from the continentand southern England at Flixborough appears to be exceptional, althoughthis apparent wealth may be partially a reflection of the fact that itis the most extensively excavated settlement in the hinterland of theHumber estuary. Most other smaller excavations of Middle Saxonsettlement deposits in this region have also yielded a very similarrange of imports, although in much fewer numbers. Rescue excavations atRiby, in north Lincolnshire yielded northern French black-burnished warepottery, Eiffel lava querns and a Frisian 'porcupine' sceat(Steedman 1994: 222; Didsbury 1994: 246-9); while lava querns and glassvessel fragments were also recovered from a Middle Saxon site documentedas a monastery at Lurk Lane, Beverley (Foreman 1991: 106; Henderson1991: 124). A Merovingian pottery vessel from a 7th-century cemetery inDriffield (Mortimer 1905: 294) and the occurrence of northern Frenchblack-burnished ware and Tating ware at Wharram Percy (Slowikowski 1992:29) also indicates the wider dispersal of imports away from theestuarine zone. In its possession of continental imports and commoditiessuch as Ipswich-type ware from East Anglia, Flixborough is therefore oneof a group of settlements which benefited from integration within thesame long-distance exchange networks which ran along the North Sea coastto the Humber estuary and its feeder rivers (Loveluck 1994: 312).Discussion - the nature and status of the settlementThe Anglo-Saxon settlement remains from Flixborough have previouslybeen interpreted as those of a monastery, on the basis of apparentsimilarities with material recovered from excavations at documentedMiddle Saxon monastic settlements (Whitwell 1991: 247; Yorke 1993: 146;Blair 1996a: 9). This suggested interpretation, however, may be undulyinfluenced by a bias in the development of criteria for defining thenature of Middle Saxon settlements and does not take into accountchanges in the physical character of the settlement, between the 7th and10th centuries. Prior to the 1980s, the vast majority of Middle Saxonsites which had been subject to excavation were documented majormonastic centres, such as Monkwearmouth, Jarrow and Whitby (Cramp 1969:2166; Peers & Radford 1943: 27-88). As a corrollary to theirdocumented possession of royal patronage, the structures and findsrecovered from these monasteries were viewed as characteristic ofhigh-status monastic settlements. Analysis of the remains also seemed tocorroborate To support or enhance the believability of a fact or assertion by the presentation of additional information that confirms the truthfulness of the item.The testimony of a witness is corroborated if subsequent evidence, such as a coroner's report or the testimony of other textual evidence provided by Bede and other clerics,confirming that these religious foci were also craftworking centreswhich enjoyed extensive contacts with continental Europe. As a legacy ofthe above excavations, certain archaeological traits have been viewed asindicative of a monastic character. These included common features insettlement morphology, such as a planned or partially planned layoutaround a cult focus, often within an enclosure - a vallum monasterii;the use of new building media, such as stone architecture; indicationsof specialist craftworking and long-distance exchange; and evidence ofliteracy, represented by styli or inscriptions. Before the mid 1980s,all the excavated sites viewed as monasteries also possessed textualevidence to reinforce their identification, thereby conditioning theinterpretation of the archaeological remains.The Flixborough settlement, with its planned layout, a probablechurch, evidence for craftworking and luxury imports, together with acollection of styli, possesses most of the traits which have been usedto identify monastic settlements. However, if the Flixborough remainsare examined alongside those from other Middle to Late Saxonsettlements, such as Wicken Bonhunt, Essex; Saint Peter's,Northampton; West Cotton (Raunds), Northants.; North Elmham, Norfolk;and more recently excavated sites at Brandon, Suffolk and Riby, northLincolnshire, it is evident that the often used archaeological criteriafor identifying monasteries must be re-assessed in order to advance ourunderstanding of the full spectrum of rural settlements in this period.Sites like Flixborough, Brandon, Saint Peter's, Wicken Bonhuntand Riby were all materially wealthy settlements for which there is nohistorical evidence to influence interpretations of their character andstatus. They exhibit a series of similarities in settlement morphology,architecture, evidence for craftworking, trade and exchange, and inthree cases, evidence for literacy. One common tradition indicated isthe widespread use of major enclosure boundaries to structure settlementlayout (Carr et al. 1988: 373; Williams 1984: 27; Steedman 1994: 221;Wade 1980: 96-7). Indeed, the weight of evidence at these and othersites, such as North Elmham and West Heslerton, suggests that manyAnglo-Saxon rural settlements had at least a loosely planned layoutwithin or associated with enclosures or linear boundaries, in theirMiddle Saxon phases (Hamerow 1995: 16; Wade-Martins 1980: 54-5; Lyall& Powlesland 1997: 1). Consequently, the previous interpretation ofthe Flixborough boundary ditch as a monastic vallum must be viewed withextreme caution. The nearest architectural affinities to the buildingsat Flixborough, in terms of foundation style and size, are also found atsettlements such as North Elmham, Wicken Bonhunt and Raunds, WestCotton, all of which have been interpreted as estate centres for secularor ecclesiastical magnates rather than monastic settlements.Like Flixborough, the settlements of Wicken Bonhunt and North Elmhamhave also yielded quantities of wheelmade pottery from northern Franceand Belgium (Wade 1980: 98; Hodges 1980: 424-6). In addition, othersuggested high-status centres, such as Saint Peter's, Northamptonand Riby, have also produced northern French pottery or other imports(Oakley & Hunter 1979: 298; Steedman et al. 1994). It is clear,therefore, that the occurrence of imported commodities on Middle Saxonrural settlements should not be relied upon as an indicator of monasticcharacter. Similar reservations should also be held over the use ofspecialist craftworking evidence as a trait linked to monasteries,outside proto-urban centres. It is sensible to expect that Middle Saxonsecular magnates would also have supported dependent artisans at estatecentres, and that these settlements would have been fully integratedinto regional and longer distance exchange networks, especially if theywere located in key trading zones, such as the Humber estuary.Nevertheless, the recovery of the collection of styli at Flixboroughdoes suggest a monastic character for the settlement or a significantecclesiastical component within the settlement population, during atleast part of the Anglo-Saxon occupation sequence. To assume, however,that the remains represent only those of a monastery, on the basis ofthe styli and inscribed lead plaque, would be to ignore the evidence forchanges in the character of the Anglo-Saxon settlement during the courseof its existence. The provisional phasing of the site identified a majorchange in its character from the mid 9th century, following thedemolition of Building 1, the possible church, and a phase oflarge-scale refuse dumping. It is during the period after the mid 9thcentury that the affinities of the buildings are closest to those foundon the estate or 'proto-manorial' centres at North Elmham andRaunds. This is not to suggest, however, that the settlement was amonastery throughout the period from the end of the 7th to the mid 9thcentury. If styli are, in the main, an indicator of monastic characterrather than resident clerics at secular high-status centres or evenliterate aristocrats, it may be significant that they are not depositedbefore the mid 8th century at Flixborough, suggesting a change in thenature of the settlement, within the Middle Saxon period.(1)The preliminary indications of several changes in the nature of theFlixborough AngloSaxon settlement between the 7th and 10th centuriesshould sound a note of caution when ascribing a functional orcharacterizing 'label' to the settlement, although theexceptional wealth of the site and the size of the buildings certainlyindicate high status. It is tempting to view the settlement as ahigh-status vill In old English Law, a division of a hundred or wapentake; a town or a city. VILL. In England this word was used to signify the parts into which a hundred or wapentake was divided. Fortesc. De Laud, ch. 24. See Co. Litt. 115 b. It also signifies a town or city. centre (caput) which became a monastery, prior to afurther transformation back to a secular estate centre or nascent'manor'. Unfortunately, bearing in mind the materialsimilarities between Middle Saxon settlements identified as monasteriesand secular high-status estate centres, together with the limited extentof excavation at Flixborough and other sites, historically-derivednomenclature may impose preconceptions which inhibit interpretation ofthe full spectrum of changes in the physical character of settlementsand their hinterland and trading relationships. Indeed, the problems ofdefinition of settlement character on the basis of historical labellinghave recently been illustrated in a re-assessment of the Middle to LateSaxon settlements at Saint Peter's, Northampton and Cheddar,Somerset (Blair 1996b: 97-121). Although the latter study provides animportant historical context for change in settlement character betweenthe Middle and Late Saxon periods, namely the transformation ofmonasteries into secular estate centres, it highlights the difficultiesof attributing different historical labels, e.g. Minster or royal villcentre, to Middle Saxon archaeological evidence which due to a limitedscale of excavation could be assigned more than one interpretation,particularly when contemporary textual evidence is absent (Blair 1996b:101-7).The limitations of using historical terminology to describe thenature of the archaeological remains of settlements, dating from the 7thto 10th centuries AD, indicate a need for independent archaeologicalcriteria for defining settlement character and status, while notignoring the historical context within which some observedarchaeological changes may have taken place. One of the most importantaspects of the detailed analysis of the Anglo-Saxon settlement site fromFlixborough, with its exceptional structural sequence, artefactual adj. 1. of or pertaining to an artefact.2. made by human actions.Adj. 1. artefactual - of or relating to artifactsartifactual andvertebrate remains, will be to make a major contribution to thedevelopment of these archaeological criteria, relating both to thechanging physical character and activities undertaken on wealthy Middleto Late Saxon settlements, in an area of England extensively integratedwithin international trading networks.Acknowledgements. Thanks are extended to John Marshall for thepreparation of the illustration drawings and to Bill Marsden for theproduction of the photographs. 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