A lepidopterous cocoon from Thera and evidence for silk in the Aegean Bronze Age.

A lepidopterous cocoon from Thera and evidence for silk in the Aegean Bronze Age. Elusive prehistoric tradeIn the consideration of trade in prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to , durable inorganic itemssuch as pottery and metal dominate our view through their good chancesof preservation. Organic materials which travel without durablecontainers, or within organic wrappings themselves, are more elusive inthe archaeological record The archaeological record is a term used in archaeology to denote all archaeological evidence, including the physical remains of past human activities which archaeologists seek out and record in an attempt to analyze and reconstruct the past. . Unusual preservation is provided by the thicktephra teph��ra?n.Solid matter that is ejected into the air by an erupting volcano.[Greek tephr deposits burying the Bronze Age Bronze Age,period in the development of technology when metals were first used regularly in the manufacture of tools and weapons. Pure copper and bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, were used indiscriminately at first; this early period is sometimes called the settlement at Akrotiri on theAegean island of Santorini (Thera), where the cast of an insect cocoon cocoon:see pupa. provides insight into a largely invisible aspect of the Aegean world.Context of the cocoonThe volcanic island of Santorini in the southern Aegean is well knownfor the settlement at Akrotiri, destroyed and buried by an eruption inthe mid 2nd millennium Be. Excavation of the site began in 1967 underthe directorship of Marinatos (1968-1976) and has continued since 1974under Doumas (1983). Ten buildings have been excavated, some survivingto a height of three storeys beneath the blanket of tephra, withwell-preserved wall-paintings, pottery, tools and furniture. On themicroscale, preservation includes extensive charred deposits of storedpulses and cereals (Sarpaki 1993), the remains of insect pests of storedand field crops (Panagiotakopulu & Buckland 1991), weeds (Sarpaki1993) and evidence for the use of natural insecticides (Panagiotakopuluet al. 1995). In the lower deposits, away from the direct charringinfluence of the hot tephra, preservation of organic remains is largelyrestricted to calcification calcification/cal��ci��fi��ca��tion/ (kal?si-fi-ka��shun) the deposit of calcium salts in a tissue.dystrophic calcification and casts of some seeds and fly puparia indrains under the settlement. From recent excavations east of the Houseof the Ladies, a structure in the northern excavated area, beneath thedestruction levels, there comes a calcified CalcifiedHardened by calcium deposits.Mentioned in: Heart Valve Repair , slightly waisted,cylindrical object, 44 mm long and 18 mm wide, with flattened ends. Oneend is broken open, revealing a smaller ovoid o��voidor o��voi��daln.Something that is shaped like an egg.adj.Shaped like an egg; oviform.ovoidhaving the oval shape of an egg.ovoid bodycolloid body. structure within[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURES 1, 2 OMITTED]. This object is identified as acast of a cocoon and part of the enclosed pupa pupa(py`pə), name for the third stage in the life of an insect that undergoes complete metamorphosis, i.e., develops from the egg through the larva and the pupa stages to the adult. . The associated group offinds, chronologically mixed, includes pottery ranging from the EarlyCycladic period through to the phase immediately prior to the eruption.The delicate nature of the object and its fine preservation impliescontemporaneity with the latest material; a mid-2nd millennium BC dateis probable.Identification of the cocoonThe good preservation of this find enables its identification.Several phyla phy��la?n.Plural of phylum. of invertebrates utilize cocoons, and a number ofArthropods produce them to protect themselves during metamorphosis or,in the case of Arachnida, as egg cases/Roberts 1995). Among the Insecta,two Orders, the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, most frequently constructcocoons; they are also present in some Coleoptera and a few smallDiptera. Apart from a few small skippers, the butterflies do notconstruct cocoons, but they are widespread among the moths (Carter &Hargreaves 1986). In the European fauna, the size and shape of thecocoon further limits the possibilities of identification to the largermoths, which construct freely spun cocoons, in particular some speciesof Lasiocampidae and Saturniidae. Only a few of the Lepidoptera,however, are sufficiently large In mathematics, the phrase sufficiently large is used in contexts such as: is true for sufficiently large to warrant discussion in relation to theAkrotiri find. The essentially urban archaeological context In archaeology, not only the context (physical location) of a discovery is a significant fact, but the formation of the context is as well. An archaeological context is an event in time which has been preserved in the archaeological record. furtherlimits interpretation since the context is not one likely to be used forthe natural pupation pu��pate?intr.v. pu��pat��ed, pu��pat��ing, pu��pates1. To become a pupa.2. To go through a pupal stage.pu��pa of a large moth and it is more probable that theitem was brought to the site and later discarded.In the European fauna, two species, the saturniid, Saturnia pyri Den.[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 3 OMITTED] and the lasiocampid, Pachypasa otus(L.), have long been suggested as the source of the 'wildsilk' of the Greek and Roman world (Kirby 1903; Zeuner 1963: 487).One of these two species is likely to have produced the Akrotiri cocoonand the size and morphology makes it is most likely to have been P.otus. S. pyri, the largest species of moth in Europe, has a largelysouthern distribution, from southern France, eastwards to Asia Minor andIran (Seitz 1913). Its striking green caterpillars feed on the leaves ofa range of fruit trees, including pear, Pyrus, apple, Malus, and cherry,Prunus Prunusa genus of trees in the family Rosaceae. The seeds of these trees contain cyanogenetic glycosides which are potentially poisonous. The fruit pulp appears to quite safe. The glycosides are amygdalin, prunasin, prulaurasin. species, as well as ash, Fraxinus excelsior Fraxinus excelsiorEuropean tree in the plant family of Oleaceae; contains an indigestible fiber which causes ruminal impaction, abdominal pain, incoordination and collapse in cows. Called also ash tree. L. and buckthorn buckthorn,common name for some members of the Rhamnaceae, a family of woody shrubs, small trees, and climbing vines widely distributed throughout the world. ,Rhamnus catharticus L. The caterpillar reaches a maximum length of 120mm and is too large to have created the Akrotiri cocoon, although thereis other evidence to suggest the presence of this moth. The otherspecies, Pachypasa otus, is much less common, ranging from southernItaly and Sicily to the coast of Bosnia, Greece, and eastwards throughRomania to Armenia and southwards to Israel (Seitz 1913). Thecaterpillars of P. otus feed most frequently on the leaves of cypress,Cupressus sempervirens L. and downy oak, Quercus pubescens Willd.; theyhave also been recorded from other oaks and juniper. The species wasused for silk production in some parts of the Levant Levant(ləvănt`)[Ital.,=east], collective name for the countries of the eastern shore of the Mediterranean from Egypt to, and including, Turkey. until last century(Kirby 1903).Silk use in the MediterraneanThe presence of pre-Han silk outside the Chinese empire has recentlybeen reviewed by Good (1995), who outlines techniques used to take thesilk thread from the cocoons, as well as considering the problems oftracing preserved fibres back to their species of origin. The earliestclaimed silk in the Mediterranean region is recorded from an Egyptianburial of the 21st Dynasty from Thebes dated to c. 1000 Be (Lubec et al.1993), although there remains some doubt over the date (Wild pers.comm.). In Europe, silk has been claimed from a rich early Iron Ageburial in the Hohmichele tumulus tumulus(t`myələs), plural tumuli (–lī), in archaeology, a heap of earth or stones placed over a grave. in Baden-Wurttemburg of the 6th centuryBC (Good 1995), although recent work has thrown doubt upon this (Wildpers. comm.). The oldest surviving material from Greece is from theKerameikos cemetery in Athens over a century later; thread from thisfind has been identified as imported Chinese silk from the silkworm silkworm,name for the larva of various species of moths, indigenous to Asia and Africa but now domesticated and raised for silk production throughout most of the temperate zone. The culture of silkworms is called sericulture. ,Bombyx mori L. - which was probably not introduced to Europe until the6th century AD (Hundt 1969; Wild 1984). On the basis of these few finds,Barber (1991: 32) suggests that wild silk manufacture in Europe began inthe Classical period in imitation of Chinese imports.The production of 'wild silk' is noticed by both Aristotle(Historia Animalia V: 19.6) and Pliny (Historia Naturalis XI: 75-8), whoassociate it with the Aegean island of Cos; wild silk garments from thisisland (Horace Satires I, II: 101-2; Ovid Ars Amatoria II: 298), as wellas from Amorgos (Aristophanes Lysistrata 45: 150), find frequentreference in the Classical sources (Richter 1929). Pliny (HistoriaNaturalis XI: 75), in a rather confused passage listing the food-plantsof the caterpillar, includes the plant hosts of both Pachypasa otus andSaturnia pyri. His suggestion that silk fibres were obtained by scrapingtrees may confuse the collection of bast fibre Bast fibre (fiber) or skin fibre is fibre collected from the Phloem (the "inner bark" or the skin) or bast surrounding the stem of a certain mainly dicotyledonic plant. with the gathering of thecocoons of silk moths in the wild. Earthenware jars are unlikely toprovide suitable places for living silkworms, as Pliny believed(Historia Naturalis XI: 78); they feed on fresh leaf growth on the treesand are susceptible to mould in enclosed spaces. In present-day Indiaand Burma, cocoons are collected in the wild and stored in pots prior tounwinding.The modern distribution of P. otus includes the Aegean (Good 1995:figure 3) but there is no clear indication that the moths were native toSantorini, rather than imported as cocoons from elsewhere, perhaps Cosor Amorgos. If Rackham's (1990) view of the Bronze Age vegetationof Santorini is correct, there was little possibility of intensivecoppice or orchard management to feed silkworms. More recent evidence inthe Aegean islands includes the use of wild silk or the cocoonsthemselves being incorporated by embroidery into dowry dowry(dou`rē), the property that a woman brings to her husband at the time of the marriage. The dowry apparently originated in the giving of a marriage gift by the family of the bridegroom to the bride and the bestowal of money upon the bride by items.Pictorial evidence for the silk moth in the Bronze Age AegeanOne cocoon does not provide evidence for the production or exchangeof silk on a grand scale. There is, however, other strong evidence forits importance in the Late Bronze Age Aegean in both practical andsymbolic terms. Silk may have been a commodity respected for its specialproperties and rarity.Silk moths and 'tree shaking' representations in Aegean artThere exists a group of representations of insects long referred toas 'butterflies' (Morgan 1987: 133), which are relativelycommon on Late Minoan I and Mycenaean seals (Betts 1984; Younger 1983)and in wall paintings (Evans 1928; Doumas 1992). Nilsson (1950) saw thebutterflies as an important symbol, while Warren (1987) has linked theiroccurrence on rings to objects that were identified as chrysalises inthe same scenes. The depiction of rather thick, curved antennae on aLate Minoan cut gemstone gemstoneAny of various minerals prized for beauty, durability, and rarity. A few noncrystalline materials of organic origin (e.g., pearl, red coral, and amber) also are classified as gemstones. from Knossos [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4.1OMITTED] suggests the hairy antennae of a moth more than the fili-formones of a butterfly. Wing markings give further features on which tobase identifications, and on both seals and wall paintings, the moth isusually depicted with one or, in some cases, several 'eyes' oneach wing, which are often also clearly bordered (Davies &Kathirithamby 1986: figure 21; Younger 1983; Betts 1984; Evans 1930)[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 5 OMITTED]. It is probable that the animalintended is not a butterfly, but the moth S. pyri.The fact that the 'butterfly' was an important motif earlyin the Late Bronze Age is also indicated by representations embossed ona gold balance from the Shaft Graves of Mycenae [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE6 OMITTED]. Evans (1930) thought that this was for ritual purposes,perhaps the weighing of the souls of the departed. Svoronos (1906, inNilsson 1950), in a less romantic mood, suggested that it was forweighing gold used as currency. The delicate nature of the balanceimplies a somewhat lighter commodity; in the light of the Akrotiricocoon, another possibility is the weighing of the precious threadproduced by the caterpillars of the moths depicted. An alternativeexplanation might be to see the moth as symbols in a link with souls andtransformation/metamorphosis. Neither of these need dominate our readingof the evidence. In later Greek myth, the 'butterfly' was ametaphor for the soul. Further afield, in Western India, the tussur silkmoth, Antheraea mylitta, was considered a sacred animal, its wing spotsseen as the chakra or discus of the god Vishnu (Wardle 1891). The labourinvolved in the collection and preparation of the thread from the rawcocoons would have kept silk a high-status commodity, and it may be thatsuch rarity and associated mystique may have led to it being regarded asa sacred animal in antiquity.Marinatos (1993: 195) argues that the insect life-cycle, withregeneration manifested as transformation, leads to fascination withinsects; for this reason insect symbolism is used in representations ofthe tree-shaking ritual which is common in Minoan iconography, perhapshaving as its focus the theme of life and death. In the common formula,one participant bends over a pithos or stone and another pulls down thebranches of a tree. In these scenes, the insects referred to as'butterflies' are sometimes juxtaposed with dragonflies, andfrequently with shapes interpreted as chrysalises (Warren 1987; 1990b:193-206).Are these repeated formulae a religious scene which has its roots inthe production process of silk? The shaking of the tree might beassociated with the collection of cocoons from the wild; the leaves ofthe tree on the Archanes ring and related representations are similar tooak, upon which the caterpillars of S. pyri and P. otus feed. This wouldaccount for the repeated presence of 'butterfly' and cocoon(Warren 1990b) motifs. A link between moth, caterpillar and chrysalis chrysalis(krĭs`əlĭs): see pupa. isprovided by a later gemstone, dated to the 1st century BC, where allthree are represented (Davies & Kathirithamby 1986; [ILLUSTRATIONFOR FIGURE 4.2 OMITTED]).Silk moth emblems and the 'ship flotilla' wall painting atTheraIt is instructive to move from consideration of what is usuallyinterpreted as a religious context, to the representations of what arehere suggested to be silk moths in another scene; those which occur inthe miniature wall painting in the West House, the site where the cocoonwas found. The wall painting - similar to scenes at other sites - showsa flotilla of six large ships with passengers and a cargo ship, whichappears to be involved in some festival, travelling from their departuretown to a port of arrival, where people on land and in small boats wait.A hierarchy of the ships is given in their degree of adornment, theprows and sterns emphasized with decorative elements (Morgan 1987: 131).All the ships carry a 'star emblem' and animal emblems -lions, birds and 'moths'. All of these have been viewed asimages of swift movement through sea and air and therefore as beingappropriate for transport (Morgan 1987: 133). Prominent amongst thesemotifs are those of Ships i and 2 which depict moths. Ship 1 has a mothon the prow, whilst Ship 2 has two on the prow and two more on the mast.The moths on the two ships are of different types; one has wings with ascalloped edge, the other is pointed with a smooth contour [ILLUSTRATIONFOR FIGURES 7, 8 OMITTED]. Ship 2 is believed to be the'flagship'. The individuals on this ship are connected with anumber of symbols of power, including the boars tusk helmets and theEgyptian 'waz' motif (Morgan 1987: 23).Evidence for silk cloth in the Aegean: pictorial and Linear BPictorial representations of silk clothesWomen depicted in Minoan wall paintings wear a diaphanous blouseunder an open bolero bolero(bəlâr`ō), national dance of Spain, introduced c.1780 by Sebastian Zerezo, or Cerezo. Of Moroccan origin, it resembles the fandango. (Ventris & Chadwick 1973). Are these diaphanousclothes, including those worn by the ladies in the Akrotiri wallpaintings, made of wild silk? The appearance of transparent garments onseals, rings and wall paintings suggests extensive use of fine fabricsin clothing the ruling classes of the Aegean Late Bronze Age.The literary evidence: Classical and Linear BIn Classical times, although silk was used for clothing in the Aegeanarea, there was no standard name for it in Greek. Aristophanes(Lysistrata 140-52, 43-5, 737-8) and Plato (Epistles XIII: 363A) talkabout the luxurious transparent clothes of Amorgos. Herodotus (I: 135;II: 84; VII: 116), Xenophon (Cyropaedia VII i: 40) and Tertullian (Depallio 4) call silk clothes Median, implying an origin in Persia.Suidas' Lexikon says 'Amorginon' is 'like linen andvery expensive' and of 'amorgis', 'it is much finerthan cotton or linen'. Strabo (XV.I.20), Pliny (Historia NaturalisXXI. 11) and Virgil (Georgics II.121), provide the common name for silkduring the Roman period, sericon, derived from Seres, the Chinese. Silkgarments are also called Coa, of Cos (Horace Satires I.II.101-3;Tibullus II. III.53-4; Ovid Ars Amatoria II. 297-8), indicating at leastone source of the fabric.The absence of a single word for true or wild silk, until thewidespread use of the term sericon, implies that it was described inother ways, related to its quality, value, area of production ormanufacture. There are a number of Knossos Linear B tablets that referto textiles (Ventris & Chadwick 1973; Killen 1966). Thecharacteristic term is pa-we-a, meaning pharwea, a piece of cloth (cf.Homeric faros = a large cloth for a sail, a large cloak, a funerary fu��ner��ar��y?adj.Of or suitable for a funeral or burial.[Latin fner shroud). The ideogram translated as wool is derived from Linear A.Bennett (1950) believes that the normal wool unit of weight isequivalent to c. 3 kg, and Sundwall (1932) suggests that the Woolideogram is exclusively a unit of value. In one group of tablets fromKnossos, there are several problems. For example, on tablet Lc525 occursthe following:se-to-ja: wa-na-ka-te-ra cloth+TE 40 wool 200 [+ tu-na-no CLOTH 3WOOL [nn]From Se-to-ja: Forty edged cloths of royal type, 200+ measures ofwool; Three cloths of tu-na-no type, several hundred measures of wool.In tablet Lc532 the tu-na-no entries give 3 measures of wool percloth, and in Lc530, 4, while in Lc525 it gives about 100. The amountsof wool on Lc532 give 6.5 measures, 7 measures on Le553, 6 on L520, and5 on Lc525. These discrepancies have led to questions about the use ofthe Wool ideogram as a unit for value. Killen (1966) believes it to be ameasure of wool given to groups of women to make certain types of cloth.In this way, the variable amount would reflect textiles of differenttypes which required different quantities of raw material. If in someinstances the wool ideogram is used as an equivalent of value, then thetu-na-no type cloths in Lc525 could be explained as of high quality; onepossible candidate is silk.Turning to another tablet, J693:ri-no/re-po-to 'qe-te-o' ki-to BRONZE ?? I [sa-pa ?? 2 Ie-pi-ki-to-ni-ja BRONZE IFine linen, of the tribute: a tunic tu��nicn.A coat or layer enveloping an organ or a part; tunica.tunica covering or coat. See also tunica.abdominal tunicsee tunica flava abdominis. = 1 kg of bronze . . . a sa-pa =45 g (of bronze). over-shirt(s) = 1 kg of bronze . . .In this tablet the fine linen is related to bronze units instead ofwool units and there is no possibility of the bronze being materialprovided centrally to produce the whole craft item, nor does it seem tobe an equivalent weight. It is improbable that a fine linen tunic wouldweigh as much as 1kg. The bronze may be used here as a measure of value.Barber (1991) argues that the bronze was to be used in the decoration ofcloth by attachments, whereas Ventris & Chadwick (1973) suggest theuse of metal and textile to make armour. This still leaves the term'fine linen' to be explained. If the value of the tunic,overshirts and 'sa-pa' is so high, it is probable that theywere made of a valuable fabric. It is suggested that the termri-no/re-po-to in Linear B (fine linen) might represent wild silk. Sucha connection may be strengthened by comparative evidence. Themeasurement of the value of fine linen might not be fortuitous, linkedas it is to bronze and tablets which list armour. Silk tunics form anatural part of body armour in combination with metal, as they minimizethe impact of projectiles, allowing their removal, as the point does notpierce silk cloth. It is for this reason that the Mongols used silkundergarments with body armour (Marshall 1993). Oppenheim (1967) hasalready suggested that the term ki-to, meaning khiton, tunic, associatedwith armour, (Akkadian kittintu, Ugaritic ktn, Hebrew [k.sup.e]tonet,derived from Mesopotamia (Ventris & Chadwick 1973: 554; Duhoux 1988:79)) could imply garments made of wild silk.Return to Thera: the star symbol and other textiles?Alongside the moths on the Ship Procession painting occur the star orrosette RosetteD’Albert’s pliable, versatile, talented, acknowledged bedmate. [Fr. Lit.: Mademoiselle de Maupin. Magill I, 542–543]See : Courtesanship(language) Rosette - A concurrent object-oriented language from MCC. emblems attached to the bowsprits of each vessel in theprocession. Morgan (1987: 132), in a full discussion of the star motif,relates it to star designs on LMIB LMIB Local Management Information Base Marine Style and other pottery.If the moths are seen as silk moths, then do they throw light onother elements in the iconography? Morgan (1987: 29) has interpreted theobjects on the rigging as 'stylized crocuses', but suggeststhat the feature associated with the 'moth' on the prow is a'star', making it virtually the only motif used to decoratethe ships which represents an abstract feature. Diapoulis (1980)identified these objects as flowers of the lily Pancratium maritimum,which they do not resemble. The flower appears far more similar tocotton, Gossypium sp., an interpretation in keeping with the link totextiles made by the moths in the flotilla wall painting. Cotton wasknown in Jordan by the 5th millennium BC (Betts et al. 1994), and itsassociation with symbols for silk would not be surprising.CommentThe identification of a silk-moth cocoon at Akrotiri indicates thepresence of wild silk in the Aegean from the mid 2nd millennium BC. Thecocoon, like the stored product insect pests recorded from the site(Panagiotakopulu & Buckland 1991), is evidence of commodities whichmight otherwise pass unnoticed in the archaeological record. Theraitself has plentiful evidence of involvement in textile manufacture andtrade. In the limited area excavated, one house has produced 450 weightsfor upright looms (Tzachili 1990) and the occurrence of the shells ofMurex mu��rex?n. pl. mu��ri��ces or mu��rex��esAny of various marine gastropods of the genus Murex common in tropical seas and having rough spiny shells, especially M. trunculus, the source of Tyrian purple. brandaris L. and M. trunculus L. (Karali-Yiannakopoulou 1990),although also eaten, probably reflects the production of scarlet andpurple fabric dyes, whilst yellow is implied by the wall-painting ofcrocus-gatherers (Douskos 1980). The context of the moth motif, and thepossible link between chrysalises and 'tree shaking', provideassociations with religious ceremony and expressions of wealth in theAegean Late Bronze Age. In this web of associations, silk, a rare andperhaps exotic material, occupied a part.Acknowledgements. The research for this paper was undertaken atSheffield, Department of Archaeology & Prehistory, as a part of adoctorate thesis. We thank John Peter Wild for his constructive commentson fabrics in antiquity and John T. Killen for discussion on theinterpretation of Linear B. We are grateful to Cyprian Broodbank forcomments and discussion. Keith and Nong Branigan discussed silkmanufacture in Thailand, and Nicky Whitehouse commented upon an earlierversion of the text. Peter Warren and David E. 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