"Keep our Black warriors out of the draft": the Vietnam antiwar movement at Southern University, 1968-1973.

"Keep our Black warriors out of the draft": the Vietnam antiwar movement at Southern University, 1968-1973. During the late 1960s and early 70s, the antiwar an��ti��war?adj.Opposed to war or to a particular war: antiwar protests; an antiwar candidate.movement gainedmomentum and introduced a new wave of protest and demonstrationsthroughout the nation. Antiwar demonstrators clashed with lawenforcement officials, university administrators, and working-classhawks. At many colleges and universities, military training programswere discontinued or in jeopardy of losing their appeal. Manyindividuals associated with the antiwar movement used the opportunity todenounce numerous social and economic inequities that existed inAmerican society (Isserman & Kazin, 2000). Although anti-war protest existed at Black colleges anduniversities, it was quite different from the front-page confrontationsat the University of California at Berkeley (body, education) University of California at Berkeley - (UCB)See also Berzerkley, BSD.http://berkeley.edu/.Note to British and Commonwealth readers: that's /berk'lee/, not /bark'lee/ as in British Received Pronunciation. or Ivy League Ivy LeagueGroup of eight universities in the northeastern U.S., high in academic and social prestige, that are members of an athletic conference for intercollegiate gridiron football dating to the 1870s. institutions.In large part, there were no sit-in demonstrations, marches, or clasheswith state police or the National Guard. Most of the protests wererhetorical, in the form of a speaker addressing small gatherings ornewspaper debates. Much of the violence that did involve students onBlack campuses directly related to civil rights protest ordemonstrations involving administrative policies, not military training.Compulsory ROTC was only mentioned in addition to other civil rightsissues and university complaints. Black institutions with a history ofmilitary training such as Southern, Tuskegee, Prairie View Prairie View may refer to: Prairie View, Texas, a city in the United States Prairie View, Illinois, a town in the United States Prairie View A&M University, a university located in Prairie View, Texas Prairie View was formerly the name of Bridge City, Texas. , Hampton,Virginia Hampton is an independent city in Virginia, and therefore not part of any Virginia county. One of the Seven Cities of Hampton Roads, it is on the southeast end of the Virginia Peninsula, bordering on Hampton Roads and Chesapeake Bay.As of the 2000 U.S. State, and Howard Universities, did not witness any violence asa direct result of the antiwar movement (Johnson, 2001). Many of the significant works written about antiwar protest duringthe Vietnam war Vietnam War,conflict in Southeast Asia, primarily fought in South Vietnam between government forces aided by the United States and guerrilla forces aided by North Vietnam. at institutions of higher education were publishedthroughout the 1980s and 90s. Several of those monographs such asTelltale Hearts: The Origins and Impact of The Vietnam Antiwar Movement(1995), Campus Wars: The Peace Movement at American State Universitiesin the Vietnam Era Vietnam Era is a term used by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs to classify veterans of the Vietnam War. The Vietnam Era is considered to have begun in 1964 and ended in 1975. The U.S. Congress, U.S. (1993), An American Ordeal: The Antiwar Movement ofthe Vietnam Era (1990), Assault on the Left: The FBI and the SixtiesAntiwar Movement (1997), and Confronting The War Machine: DraftResistance During the Vietnam War (2003) primarily focus on theevolution of antiwar student activism Student activism is work done by students to effect political, environmental, economic, or social change. It has often focused on making changes in schools, such as increasing student influence over curriculum or improving educational funding. in the post World War II era,student activities at traditionally White institutions, and whatprompted young Americans throughout the nation to invest so much ofthemselves to this ideological cause. In relation to the "Blackexperience," each manuscript highlights the civil rights movement,national Black leadership, and significant organizations such as theBlack Panther Party Black Panther Party (for Self-Defense)U.S. African American revolutionary party founded in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale (b. 1936) in Oakland, Calif. Its original purpose was to protect African Americans from acts of police brutality. and Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. Whatis missing however is detailed reference to antiwar activism at Blackcolleges and universities, the slayings at Jackson State University Jackson State University, often abridged as Jackson State or by its initials JSU is a historically black university located in Jackson, Mississippi founded in 1877. , andmost important, how and why was the antiwar movement different atAfrican American African AmericanMulticulture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa.See Race. institutions where military service and training had amajor impact on the Black community. This study attempts to document theanti-war and ROTC protest movement at Historically Black Colleges andUniversities Historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) are institutions of higher education in the United States that were established before 1964 with the intention of serving the African American community. They are often liberal arts colleges or universities. (HBCUs), in particular Southern University between 1968 and1973. In 1968, although many students were calling for an end tocompulsory ROTC at Southern University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana For the Canadian restaurant, see .Baton Rouge (from the French baton rouge), pronounced /ˈb?tn ˈɹuːʒ/in English, and , thedecision to abolish mandatory military training did not reflect thehostility or intensity displayed on White college campuses anduniversities. Throughout the late 1960s, antiwar supporters andpro-military advocates at Southern engaged in a continual debate aboutthe merits of military service and training. Student leaders, faculty,and Black power activists argued their viewpoints with ROTC cadets,military officials, and administrators who embraced the militarytradition at their institution. Most of the debate appeared in campusnewspapers. The dispute included rhetorical attacks, rebuttals, anddirect insults. While the civil rights movement continued to takeprecedence over the war in Vietnam for most African Americans, militarytraining and service continued to offer economic benefits andopportunities that were hard for others to ignore (Neiberg, 2000). AtSouthern, despite a brief history of only 20 years, the ROTC program hadquickly established itself as a major producer of African-American Armyofficers. Between 1948 and 1960, the Jaguar Battalion produced over twohundred Army lieutenants (Vincent, 1980). By the late 1990s, nine formerstudents from the Baton Rouge Baton Rouge(băt`ən rzh)[Fr.,=red stick], city (1990 pop. 219,531), state capital and seat of East Baton Rouge parish, SE La. campus had reached the rank of general,arguably ar��gu��a��ble?adj.1. Open to argument: an arguable question, still unresolved.2. That can be argued plausibly; defensible in argument: three arguable points of law. making Southern University's ROTC program the mostsuccessful African-American military training program and furtherhighlighting the influence of the military tradition at America'slargest Black college and university (Dabbs, 1997). The contradiction of fighting for democracy aboard while AfricanAmericans continued to experience racism and discrimination at homebuttressed the antiwar rhetoric of Black power leaders. Many AfricanAmericans criticized the federal government for sending hundreds ofthousands of soldiers to fight for South Vietnamese freedom while only afew hundred law enforcement officers were assigned to protect BlackAmerican citizens in the South from brutal attacks and murders whenattempting to vote (Mullen, 1973). Numerous African-American soldiersalso questioned why they were serving in the armed forces and becameless tolerant of racism and discrimination within the military ranks.Wallace Terry Wallace Houston Terry, II (April 21, 1938 - May 29, 2003) Wallace (“Wally”) Terry was born in New York City and raised in Indianapolis, Indiana, where he was an editor of the Shortridge Daily Echo, one of the few high school dailies in America. (1984) believes that in 1968 and 1969 a new Black soldieremerged in Vietnam: The war [had] used up the professionals who found in military service fuller and fairer employment opportunities than Blacks could find in civilian society, who found in uniform a supreme test of their Black manhood. Replacing the careerist were Black draftees, many just steps removed from marching in the Civil Rights Movement or rioting in the rebellions that swept the urban ghettos from Harlem to Watts. All were filled with a new sense of Black pride and purpose. They spoke loudest against the discrimination they encountered on the battlefield in decorations, promotion and duty assignments. (p. xiv) Attitudes of African-American soldiers were also reflected in theBlack community and on college campuses during this period. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. a Newsweek poll of African-American attitudes on the war in 1969, Blacksconsidered the war as a source of many of their social ills. Unlikeprevious military conflicts when African Americans benefited from theirparticipation and support, the war in Vietnam redirected Black youthfrom addressing problems in their communities and siphoned away billionsof dollars originally allocated for national social uplift programs(Mullen, 1973). The late 1960s also witnessed an increase in campus antiwarorganizing. In 1968 antiwar demonstrations occurred at over one hundredcollege campuses and high schools. At many Ivy-league universitiesincluding Columbia University Columbia University,mainly in New York City; founded 1754 as King's College by grant of King George II; first college in New York City, fifth oldest in the United States; one of the eight Ivy League institutions. , Black Nationalist Black Nationalistn.A member of a group of militant Black people who urge separatism from white people and the establishment of self-governing Black communities.Black Nationalism n. and Students for aDemocratic Society (SDS 1. (company) SDS - Scientific Data Systems.2. (tool) SDS - Schema Definition Set. ) combined efforts to protest the war in Vietnamand disrupt recruiting activities of Columbia University's ROTCprogram and defense contractor Noun 1. defense contractor - a contractor concerned with the development and manufacture of systems of defensearmed forces, armed services, military, military machine, war machine - the military forces of a nation; "their military is the largest in the region"; Dow Chemical. Student activist alsoprotested the University's plans to eliminate area public housingto expand campus facilities. Student demonstrations lasted approximatelyeight weeks with nearly one thousand arrests (Boyer, 1995). In the spring of 1968 Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated andthe tragedy was devastating dev��as��tate?tr.v. dev��as��tat��ed, dev��as��tat��ing, dev��as��tates1. To lay waste; destroy.2. To overwhelm; confound; stun: was devastated by the rude remark. news on Black college campuses. Inaddition to being America's most recognizable civil rights leader,King became a staunch critic of the war. In the remaining months of hislife, King repeatedly spoke out against the war in Vietnam and warnedthat if America did not find a way out of the immoral conflict, it maybe necessary to initiate mass demonstrations and protest. King alsosuggested that African Americans, poor whites, and Vietnamese were beingexploited by America (Shapiro, 1989). While Black college campuses throughout the South reacted toKing's assassination AssassinationSee also Murder.assassinsFanatical Moslem sect that smoked hashish and murdered Crusaders (11th—12th centuries). [Islamic Hist.: Brewer Note-Book, 52]Brutusconspirator and assassin of Julius Caesar. [Br. , in Baton Rouge over 2,000 students andcommunity residents marched to the State Capital to protest racism anddiscrimination in Louisiana. Once the demonstrators reached the Capital,under the watchful eye of armed city and state police, the firstspeaker, SU student leader Jodie Bibbens vented his frustration to thecrowd. "Today we'll be what they call responsible Negroes,good and humble, but at night we're gonna play like the KKK. We aremoving from non-violence and civil disobedience civil disobedience,refusal to obey a law or follow a policy believed to be unjust. Practitioners of civil disobediance basing their actions on moral right and usually employ the nonviolent technique of passive resistance in order to bring wider attention to the to guerilla warfare andcivil rebellion" ("Students March On the Capital To ProtestWhite Racist Killing," May 1968). Bibbens announced that whiteracism had caused the death of Martin Luther King, Jr. and"contrary to what President [Felton] Clark said, there is a greatdeal of unrest at Southern. We are not happy and we're going toshow it in the future." Another student leader, Temon Hawkins, toreup his draft card and voiced his unwillingness to serve in the armedforces of a racist society ("Students March On the Capital ToProtest White Racist Killing," May 1968). After the death of MartinLuther King, Jr. the [dagger] antiwar movement on Black college campusesappeared to take on new urgency. Many African Americans began to feelthat the civil rights thrust had stalled and the war in Vietnam wasanother cynical attempt to further American imperialism against peopleof color Noun 1. people of color - a race with skin pigmentation different from the white race (especially Blacks)people of colour, colour, colorrace - people who are believed to belong to the same genetic stock; "some biologists doubt that there are important . Shortly after the student demonstration at the state capitalin Baton Rouge, a call to abolish compulsory ROTC appeared in thestudent newspaper at Southern: I am opposed to compulsory ROTC program on our campus because I feel that it is of questionable academic value to most students' education; its courses are as academic as physical ed. It is often an unnecessary drain of students' time and federal funds. In bringing it closer to home--Nowhere, perhaps is the military image of the U.S. lower than it is among the Black male students especially those of Southern U. The reason is compulsory ROTC which finds its 'right to be' in the draft. Our Black male students are forced to participate in the program and because of that, most of them hate it. ("Compulsory ROTC--Give Us A Choice," May 1968) By the fall of 1968, Southern University President Felton G. Clarkdecided to retire from Southern University. After 30 years as president,Clark decided to let someone else take the burden of leading theinstitution through some of its most turbulent times. As Southern'sstrongest supporter of military training and the individual mostresponsible for the existence and success of the ROTC department, evenin his final year as president Clark was busy writing letters to theDepartment of Navy for the establishment of a Naval Reserve A Naval Reserve is the reserve body of a nation's Navy, typically called-upon in times of conflict. Naval Reserves include; Royal Australian Naval Reserve Royal Naval Reserve (United Kingdom) United States Navy Reserve OfficersTraining Corps Unit (Letter, D. H. Guinn to G. Leon Netterville, 1970,October 17). Clark's desire to promote the virtues of militarytraining was not only a function of student character but what hebelieved as an obligation as a land-grant institution established underthe guidelines of the 1890 Morrill Act (Letter. F.G. Clark to Howard C.Petersen Howard Charles Petersen (1910 – 1995) was born in East Chicago, Indiana. He graduated from DePauw University in 1930 and the University of Michigan Law School in 1933. , 1947, June 24). "While the language of the 1862 MorrillAct that established white land-grant institutions included instructionin agriculture and mechanical arts (A&M), it also specified theinclusion of military tactics in the curriculum," according to RodAndrew (2001, p. 40). "African-American southern land-grantsschools that existed under these same guidelines that did notincorporate the military feature until after World War I included NorthCarolina North Carolina,state in the SE United States. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (E), South Carolina and Georgia (S), Tennessee (W), and Virginia (N).Facts and FiguresArea, 52,586 sq mi (136,198 sq km). Pop. A&M, Prairie View A&M, Southern, and TennesseeA&I" (p. 93). Clark's attitude toward military trainingwas shared by many African-American administrators during this period.Despite his efforts to promote the virtues of military training,students at a Student Leadership Conference in Baton Rouge decided topush harder for the abolition of compulsory ROTC, noting that "landgrant colleges [were] no longer obligated to force it upon itsstudents" ("Highlights of Student Leadership Conference"October 1968). Throughout the fall semester of 1968, compulsory ROTC continued tobe a hot topic on Southern's campus. Critics of compulsory militarytraining proudly announced that colleges and universities throughout thenation were changing from mandatory training programs to voluntaryprograms: Should compulsory ROTC be eliminated as a degree requirement at Southern? Campus-wide sentiments indicate that abolition of compulsory ROTC courses would be more beneficial to the University. The latest trend by college and universities to shift from compulsory to voluntary ROTC programs has been rapid since 1963. In eleven Southern States, there are 40 schools with voluntary programs and 33 with compulsory. Now less than 19 out of 68 land grant schools of which Southern University is one, have compulsory ROTC. ("Comment" November 1968) Southern Digest staff writer Frank Williams reported that moststudents on campus did not support compulsory ROTC. By contrast he alsoremarked, Colonel Warren B. Rhodes, Professor of Military Science,"Feels that ROTC should be compulsory at some phase of a youngblack man's life in college. He firmly believes that militaryscience teaches the basic fundamentals of being a man, especially how tostand on one's own two feet, and how to accept responsibility forhimself and others. It is in this respect that ROTC strives to establishleadership. It teaches a student to accept what he really believes inand tends to enable him to speak out" ("R.O.T.C. Vs TheMan," December 1968). Though many land grant institutions in the South moved fromcompulsory to a voluntary ROTC obligation, it is worth noting thatbetween 1968 and 1974 the Southern region of the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. represents the area where the largest growth occurred in relation to theestablishment of new ROTC programs. The U.S. military shifted its focusfrom the East where a predominate number of Ivy-league and privateinstitutions phased-out military training, to concentrate on"military friendly" communities that had a long standingrelationship with the armed forces such as Fayetteville State near Ft.Bragg, North Carolina, Benedict College Benedict College is an historically African-American liberal arts college located in Columbia, South Carolina. Founded in 1870 by northern Baptists, it was originally a teacher's college. It has since expanded into a four-year college. near Ft. Jackson, SouthCarolina South Carolina,state of the SE United States. It is bordered by North Carolina (N), the Atlantic Ocean (SE), and Georgia (SW).Facts and FiguresArea, 31,055 sq mi (80,432 sq km). Pop. (2000) 4,012,012, a 15. , and Alabama State near Maxwell Air Force base Coordinates: “Maxwell Field” redirects here. For other uses, see Maxwell Field (disambiguation).Maxwell Air Force Base (IATA: MXF,ICAO: KMXF,FAA LID: MXF), officially known as in Montgomery,Alabama (Neiberg, 2000). In comparison, the military obligation atland-grant institutions continued to be more resilient when discussinglike obligations at private institutions, liberal arts colleges It may never be fully completed or, depending on its its nature, it may be that it can never be completed. However, new and revised entries in the list are always welcome.Liberal arts colleges , andnon-land grant institutions. Because of a lack of interest in militarytraining and low number of officer commissions, ROTC units weredeactivated by the Department of Defense in schools such as theUniversity of Michigan (body, education) University of Michigan - A large cosmopolitan university in the Midwest USA. Over 50000 students are enrolled at the University of Michigan's three campuses. The students come from 50 states and over 100 foreign countries. , the University of Illinois University of Illinois may refer to: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (flagship campus) University of Illinois at Chicago University of Illinois at Springfield University of Illinois system It can also refer to: , Stanford, Harvard,Yale, Grinnell College Grinnell College,at Grinnell, Iowa; coeducational; incorporated 1847 as Iowa College, opened 1848 by Congregationalists at Davenport. The college moved to Grinnell in 1859, under the auspices of Josiah B. Grinnell. It was named Grinnell College in 1909. , and Franklin and Marshall (Neiberg, 2000). Southern University's commitment to military training in theface of opposition and other similar HBCUs can be explained in part bythe historic relationship between its institutional missions of socialuplift and first class citizenship and how military training anddiscipline was perceived by Black leaders and college administrators topromote organizational and leadership skills among African-Americanyouth. By 1952, 13 Black colleges and universities in nine differentstates submitted applications to the Department of Defense for theestablishment of senior military training programs (Memorandum, Officeof the Assistant Secretary of Defense to Major General Hugh M. Milton,1952 December 22). African-American college presidents were particularlyinterested in: 1. Increasing the number of ROTC programs in colleges for Negroesand in high schools for Negroes in states where separate educationalinstitutions exist[ed] for Negro and White people to the end that moreNegro youth may receive the military training and acquire leadershipbenefits from such training. 2. Increasing the pay, benefits, and grants-in-aid to ROTC andNROTC NROTC Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps students of all groups. 3. Pointing up the military and citizenship obligations of personinvolved in the total ROTC and NROTC program. (Memorandum, The ExecutiveCommittee of the Conference of Presidents of Land-Grant Colleges forNegroes to The U.S. Office of Education, 1948 April 2) The establishment of military training programs on Black collegecampuses during the post-war era strengthened the link between militaryservice and training as a citizenship obligation and the quest for Verb 1. quest for - go in search of or hunt for; "pursue a hobby"quest after, go after, pursuelook for, search, seek - try to locate or discover, or try to establish the existence of; "The police are searching for clues"; "They are searching for the African-American civil rights. In addition, the economic benefits ofmilitary service also helped expand a growing Black middle-class thatplayed a significant role in the civil rights movement of the 1950s and60s (Moskos & Butler, 1996). While numerous student organizations and activists throughout thenation lobbied for the abolition of compulsory ROTC, the U.S. Army andcollege administrators throughout the nation met to discuss how toincrease ROTC enrollment. During this period, the number of students whoidentified with the antiwar movement increased from 35 percent in 1967to nearly 70 percent in 1970 (Useem, 1973). Dr. Martin L. Harvey, Deanof Student Affairs Student affairs staff are responsible for academic advising and support services delivery at colleges and universities in the United States and abroad. The chief student affairs officer at a college or university often reports directly to the chief executive of the institution. , represented Southern University at the EducatorsConference held by the Fourth Army at Fort Bliss Fort Bliss,U.S. army post, 1,122,500 acres (454,300 hectares), W Tex., E of El Paso; est. 1849 and named for Col. William Bliss, Gen. Zachary Taylor's adjutant in the Mexican War. Originally strategically located near the only ice-free pass through the Rocky Mts. , Texas. Upon returningto Baton Rouge, Harvey presented the new president, G. Leon Netterville,with a detailed report of the Conference. Harvey (1969) announced,"Many colleges have changed the ROTC curriculum to non-militarysubjects. Special attention should be given to increasing the number ofNegro students in the advanced course. There is only one Negro officerto every 30 enlisted men." Surprisingly, Harvey also reported thatinstitutions that dropped the mandatory requirement for militarytraining experienced a reduction in enrollments but noticed an increasein the number of highly motivated cadets. Harvey's memo also listedstudent dissident organizations located throughout Louisiana that theU.S. military was concerned about. Two of those organizations were theStudent Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and W.E.B. Du Bois Du Bois(d`bois, dəbois`), city (1990 pop. 8,286), Clearfield co., W central Pa., in the region of the Allegheny plateau; inc. 1881. Clubs.Although Black Power activists were intensely antagonistic antagonisticadjective Referring to any combination of 2 or more drugs, which results in a therapeutic effect that is less than the sum of each drug's effect. Cf Additive, Synergism. towardracially integrated faculty at HBCUs, Harvey (1969) further reported,"I raised the question about racial integration of the ROTC Staff,since the former President [Clark] had made it clear in writing thatSouthern University was interested" (Memorandum, Martin L. Harveyto G. Leon Netterville, 1968, November 18). Even though the Southern Digest increasingly printed militanteditorials and articles supporting the Black power movement, manystudents and faculty believed that those publications did not accuratelyreflect their convictions or opinions: There can be little doubt that the S.U. Digest is fast becoming the mouthpiece of the Black Student Union and is, therefore, no longer representative of most students of S.U. I make this charge with full knowledge of the facts. As a test of this charge I challenge the editors of the Digest to publish this article which flies in the face of their expressed views on Blackness, or on what I have called elsewhere the Black mystique. I also challenge them to publish my letter, "The Black Militant Fad," submitted for publication in the March 7th issue of the Digest. ("Against The Black Digest," March 1969) In fact, the debate that persisted between antiwar supporters andpro-military advocates in student newspapers or student unions at Blackcolleges and universities was simply a reflection of the tension thatexisted in the Black community concerning the war and the politicaldirection of African Americans. While many African Americans became moremilitant and less tolerant of social inequities in American society,others acknowledged those problems but continued to search for ways toadvance themselves socially and economically. While the war in Vietnam continued and America grappled with themoral issues the conflict raised, students at Southern University inBaton Rouge and New Orleans New Orleans(ôr`lēənz –lənz, ôrlēnz`), city (2006 pop. 187,525), coextensive with Orleans parish, SE La., between the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain, 107 mi (172 km) by water from the river mouth; founded began a series of demonstrations andboycotts to protest their [dagger] dissatisfaction with universityfacilities, curriculum, health insurance, rules and regulations,condition of streets and roads, and administration that ultimately ledto the end of compulsory ROTC. In April 1969, student activists at Southern University-New Orleans(SUNO) delivered a list of demands to the university administration. Inaddition to a Black Studies department and a course on Black Liberationthat was to be taught by Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee(SNCC SNCCabbr.Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee ) chapter director, Jimmie "Scrooge" Lagare, demand #5insisted that "there be a Black Draft Counseling Center immediatelyestablished on campus. This center is to be headed by Brother WalterCollins," the demand read, "who is unofficially one of theforemost authorities on the draft. Countless numbers of Black males aretaken out of school and forced to serve in the system of legal slaveryevery year. This is because of the inefficiency of the Registrar'sOffice and the lack of student knowledge concerning the draft"("SUNO REVOLTS," May 1969). Even though full- time students atSouthern could receive a draft exemption, they were still vulnerable tothe threat of conscription conscription,compulsory enrollment of personnel for service in the armed forces. Obligatory service in the armed forces has existed since ancient times in many cultures, including the samurai in Japan, warriors in the Aztec Empire, citizen militiamen in ancient . Campus based and antiwar resistanceorganizations, such as SNCC, worked to expose inequalities in theSelective Service System. While full-time students were deferred,part-time students were considered potential draftees. In addition,students with poor grades could lose their deferments in contrast tostudents with high marks who also had the opportunity to enter graduateschool. Students pursing careers as engineers and scientist were alsogiven special consideration as well. According to Christian Appy (1993),"the Selective Service System's class-biased channeling, themilitary's wartime slashing of admission standards, studentdeferments, and medical exemptions, favored the well-informed andeconomically privileged" (p. 37). In an effort to avert trouble, President G. Leon Nettervillequickly made preparations to meet with SUNO departments heads andstudent leaders. As president of the Southern University system,Netterville made every effort to reduce tension among students as wellas keep lines of communication "Lines of Communication" is an episode from the fourth season of the science-fiction television series Babylon 5. SynopsisFranklin and Marcus attempt to persuade the Mars resistance to assist Sheridan in opposing President Clark. open between student leaders and thegoverning body Noun 1. governing body - the persons (or committees or departments etc.) who make up a body for the purpose of administering something; "he claims that the present administration is corrupt"; "the governance of an association is responsible to its members"; "he of the Southern University system, the all-White StateBoard of Education. A faculty committee was organized to discuss eachdemand and to begin work on development of a Black Studies curriculum.Netterville attended each faculty meeting with the intention ofpresenting recommendations to the next meeting of the State Board ofEducation ("Netterville Meets With SUNO Leaders," April 1969). On the day the State Board of Education was to meet in Baton Rouge,more than 250 students from SUNO arrived at the State Department ofEducation building to show support for their agenda. The state policewere immediately called and once they arrived, students left thebuilding and reassembled at the Baton Rouge campus administrationbuilding. At Southern, university officials assured them that theirdemands would be addressed. However, when students learned that theState Board had quickly moved through its agenda and left the buildingwithout addressing their concerns, they returned and attempted to enterthe office of William J. Dodd William J. Dodd (1862-1930) ~Distinguished American architect and designer. Canadian-born, of Irish and English parents, William James Dodd may well come to be regarded as among the most accomplished architects working in Louisville, Kentucky and Los Angeles, California between , the State Superintendent of Education.Sheriff's deputies and state police were called out once again andafter a brief standoff, students returned to the Baton Rouge campus.Again, Netterville assured students that their demands would beaddressed in the coming months ("Protestors From SUNO GatherHere," May 1969). A few days later, two hundred student demonstrators at SUNO enteredthe administration building and refused to leave. The state police andNational Guard were notified. It was reported that students were upsetthat nothing was done about their demands that were presented touniversity officials a month earlier during boycotts and demonstrationsthat lasted for twelve days. The demands included physical improvementsto the campus as well as a Black Studies department and a course onBlack liberation. Members of the Students' Afro-American Societydemanded that Dean Emmitt Bashful bash��ful?adj.1. Shy, self-conscious, and awkward in the presence of others. See Synonyms at shy1.2. Characterized by, showing, or resulting from shyness, self-consciousness, or awkwardness. be immediately fired or removed fromthe New Orleans campus because many believed that he was apathetic ap��a��thet��icadj.Lacking interest or concern; indifferent.apa��thet tostudent concerns ("Students Leave SU in Orleans; McKeithen HoldsBack Guard," May 1969). In a similar incident on the Baton Rouge campus, students placedbarricades throughout the university to prevent the traffic flow ontothe campus. Reports that an African-American female was assaulted by aWhite male and that a Black male was unlawfully arrested promptedstudents to act. President Netterville reported that both incidents wereonly rumors and were untrue. He went on to say, "These are timeswhen all young people feel frustrated--what with the Vietnam War andall. And obviously Black young people feel the most frustrated of all,because of the race situation" ("SU Unrest Blamed On UntrueReports," May 1969). Despite the actions of many students and theposition of the State Board of Education, Netterville believed that anunderstanding could be reached between the two parties. On May 14, 1969 student leaders at Southern University met withLouisiana Governor John McKeithen John Julian McKeithen (May 28, 1918 -- June 4, 1999), a Democrat from the tiny town of Columbia, the seat of Caldwell Parish in northeastern Louisiana, was the first governor of his state to serve two consecutive terms. His tenure ran from 1964-1972. to discuss their grievances. Bothparties characterized the meeting as productive. The Governor agreed toseveral demands of which included a major legislative bill for $100,000for campus security. Of the 53 demands, many individuals believed thatthe most popular was that students should have a stronger voice incampus affairs. Other demands included better cafeteria facilities tomore library books and better street lighting. Coincidently co��in��ci��den��tal?adj.1. Occurring as or resulting from coincidence.2. Happening or existing at the same time.co��in whilestudent leaders and Governor McKiethen worked on solving many ofSouthern's problems, the Louisiana Legislature sent a strongmessage to student protestors around the state when they votedunanimously for a bill that provided harsh penalties for anyone involvedin occupying campus buildings or demonstrators that disrupted campuslife at Louisiana institutions ("Calm Prevails at SU After GovernorMeet," May 1969). While Southern University did not experience any protest ordemonstrations solely aimed at removing ROTC programs from the campus,other Louisiana colleges did. The antiwar movement that found its baseof support at colleges and universities throughout the nation caught theattention of many interested individuals who believed in the merits ofmilitary training. In the Baton Rouge city newspaper anti-ROTC agitatorswere described as a minority of "militants" who promotedrevolution. Many of these sentiments were articulated in an editorial inwhich the author remarked, "To the pleasant surprise of ROTCsupporters and the dismay of its enemies, ROTC appears to be doing quitewell" ("ROTC Is Doing OK," May 1969). At Southern, FormerDean of Instruction and Vice-President, E.C. Harrison also describedanti-ROTC students as a minority. "As I remember, the vast majorityof students supported ROTC. You will always have a nucleus of people whodisagree with Verb 1. disagree with - not be very easily digestible; "Spicy food disagrees with some people"hurt - give trouble or pain to; "This exercise will hurt your back" the majority but they were a minority" (E.C.Harrison, personal interview, August 29, 1998). Former SU student andadministrator, Frank Ransburg described anti-ROTC sentiment at Southernas talk. "The only thing you heard was talk. On a college campusthere will always be different opinions circulating on everything.People didn't pay attention to such talk" (Frank Ransburg,personal interview, April 27, 2001). Although Ransburg'scharacterization of anti-ROTC reaction at Southern maybeover-simplified, one clearly gets the impression that at Southern manyindividuals did not share the views of anti-ROTC advocates. In an effort to show concern Governor McKiethen toured the BatonRouge campus with students to get a first hand account of some of theproblems. Student body president William Jefferson William Jefferson can refer to more than one person. William J. Jefferson, Louisiana Democratic congressman Will Jefferson, English cricketer See also: William Jefferson Clinton, better known as Bill Clinton, U.S. expressed the desireof many students to have an overpass constructed connecting the campusto the surrounding community. In addition, the Governor inspectedseveral dorms, cafeteria facilities, and was asked to address theproblem of mosquitoes at a nearby lake. Hours before the Governorarrived on campus, student leaders met with State Board officials todiscuss their concerns. The meeting was described as beneficial("Gov. McKeithen Tours Southern University Campus," May 1969). While tensions subsided between Southern students and State Boardmembers another Louisiana college Louisiana College is a private institution of higher education located in Pineville, Louisiana affiliated with the Louisiana Baptist Convention, serving a student body of approximately 1,000 students. The college operates on a semester system, with two shorter summer terms. experienced student unrest. Twenty-oneTulane University HistoryFounding/early historyThe University dates from 1834 as the Medical College of Louisiana.<ref name="facts" /> With the addition of a law department, it became The University of Louisiana students and a faculty member in New Orleans disruptedROTC instruction in an effort to express their frustration with theprogram. The incident was one of many in recent weeks designed tointerfere with military training on campus. Campus police immediatelyarrested demonstrators and charged them with willful disruption ofuniversity activities ("21 TU Students are Disciplined," May1969). As students at Southern concentrated on making physicalimprovements and better funding opportunities a reality on the BatonRouge and New Orleans campuses, several predominately White institutionsmoved to abolish compulsory ROTC on their campuses. On April 20, 1969,the McNesse State College president announced that the ROTC evaluationcommittee agreed to implement a voluntary program ("Committee SetOn ROTC in Lake Charles Lake Charles,city (1990 pop. 70,580), seat of Calcasieu parish, SW La.; inc. 1867. It is located on Lake Charles at the mouth of the Calcasieu River in a rice, timber, oil, and natural gas region. ," April 1969). A few weeks later, LouisianaState University's (LSU LSU Louisiana State UniversityLSU Large SubunitLSU La Salle University (Philadelphia, PA)LSU La Sierra UniversityLSU Link State Update (OSPF)LSU Learning Support Unit ) decision made front-page news when itreported, "Members of the LSU Board of Supervisors killedcompulsory ROTC by a vote of 9-4" ("ROTC Made Voluntary by LSUBoard," May 1969). A couple of months later, Northeast LouisianaState College made the decision to abolish compulsory ROTC in an effort"... to become a stronger corps" ("Northeast ROTC GoesElective," August 1969). Southern's decision to move to avoluntary ROTC program came on the heels of other Louisianainstitutions. With little publicity president Netterville announced hisplans to abolish compulsory ROTC in conjunction with other concessionsmade to students. "Dissent and demonstrations will be tolerated butforced cessation of class activities will not be at Southern. The rightof persons will be protected if they desire to attend classes"("Netterville States Policy On Disruptions," September 1969).Following this statement Netterville revealed his decision to havevoluntary ROTC at Southern. Frank Ransburg believes that Southern's choice to abolishcompulsory military training represented an effort to restructure itsacademic program. Unlike other Louisiana institutions that witnessedsocial unrest as a result of ROTC activities, student led protests anddemonstrations were concerned with giving students a stronger voice inadministrative issues, physical improvements to the campus, and moresocial freedom at the university. Military training did not receive thetype of negative attention that it did at traditionally Whiteinstitutions because either individuals supported its presence on campusor were more concerned with other issues. Ransburg also suggested that amajor part of the decision to abolish compulsory ROTC at Southern wasconvenience of scheduling: Students asked for 53 changes at Southern University, one of which was that they no longer wanted Saturday classes. If you were taking ROTC certain classes were scheduled during the week. So you were forced to schedule classes on Saturday. I don't think that the abolishment of compulsory ROTC was anti-military, I think that it was a scheduling concern when most colleges in Louisiana had already abolished Saturday classes except Southern University. By 1969 you (African Americans) could go to any school in the state. Why would you want to go to a school that had Saturday classes when every other institution did not? So the movement to abolish compulsory ROTC was not anti-military as much as it was a convenience in scheduling courses. (interview, 2001) Ransburg further remarked, "I think that the recommendationcame from the Committee on Student Affairs and he [Netterville] approvedit. Knowing Netterville as I did, he probably cleared it with the StateBoard of Education. But as I said before, at that time, unless it wassomething outlandish out��land��ish?adj.1. Conspicuously unconventional; bizarre. See Synonyms at strange.2. Strikingly unfamiliar.3. Located far from civilized areas.4. Archaic Of foreign origin; not native. , the president of the university could do prettymuch what he wanted to do. The decision to abolish compulsory ROTC wassort-of routine because all of the other state colleges were eliminatingcompulsory ROTC on their campuses" (Frank Ransburg, personalinterview, April 2001). At Southern, the fall semester of 1969 began with the news thatcompulsory ROTC was officially abolished and for the first time malestudents could choose whether they wanted to participate. The majorityof faculty members at Southern had voted to discontinue compulsorymilitary training and student participation dropped by more than 50% andthe military program experienced an immediate reduction in enrollment("R.O.T.C. Goes Voluntary," September 1969). Although thenumber of ROTC cadets was reduced, Lieutenant Colonel Warren Rhodes,believed that "because ROTC [was] voluntary, the cadets should bededicated to the program; and too, that the corps should be 'asgood as or better than' the past years" ("R.O.T.C. GoesVoluntary," September 1969). Despite a reduction in ROTC enrollment, the Army ROTC programcontinued to actively recruit male students and present itself as anorganization with vast growth potential and much to offer young AfricanAmericans: The fact that a considerable percentage of the student population has voluntarily registered for the program is offered by the staff as evidence that the ROTC does have a future in the S.U. Curriculum. The university, a predominantly Black institution, is the leading single producer of qualified Negro officers for service in the United States Army. This year forty-nine (49) students entered the Advanced Program, which is the highest number in the history of this university. This particular point is significant because the program presently is under a voluntary system which would suggest a decrease in participation in the advanced program; however, statistically the opposite is true. ("Status of ROTC In Review At S.U.," October 1969) The ROTC department proudly reported that in addition to manysocial events, an ROTC Flight Program would be offered at Southern. Theprogram was designed to "stimulate college students' interestin Army aviation and expose selected ROTC cadets to an actual flightenvironment" ("ROTC Flight Program At SouthernUniversity," October 1969). In May 1970, when President Nixon announced the invasion ofCambodia, antiwar activism intensified at college campuses across thenation. Demonstrations were held at Temple University, VillanovaUniversity Villanova University(vĭl'ənō`və), at Villanova, Pa., near Philadelphia; Roman Catholic; est. 1842 as a men's school, coeducational since 1967. , State University of New York (body) State University of New York - (SUNY) The public university system of New York State, USA, with campuses throughout the state. , and the University of Arizona (body, education) University of Arizona - The University was founded in 1885 as a Land Grant institution with a three-fold mission of teaching, research and public service. .Violence erupted when student protestors at the University of Maryland University of Maryland can refer to: University of Maryland, College Park, a research-extensive and flagship university; when the term "University of Maryland" is used without any qualification, it generally refers to this school in College Park stormed the ROTC building and attempted to burnuniforms, files, and classroom furniture. The governor of Maryland The Governor of Maryland heads the executive branch of the government of the U.S. state of Maryland and is commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. He or she is the highest ranking official in the state, and has a broad range of appointive powers in state and local immediately sent the National Guard and state police to restore order tothe campus. A day later, the ROTC departments at Michigan StateUniversity Michigan State University,at East Lansing; land-grant and state supported; coeducational; chartered 1855. It opened in 1857 as Michigan Agricultural College, the first state agricultural college. and Princeton University Princeton University,at Princeton, N.J.; coeducational; chartered 1746, opened 1747, rechartered 1748, called the College of New Jersey until 1896.Schools and Research Facilities were both attacked by studentprotestors (Spofford, 1988). Throughout the northeastern United States,students at 13 colleges and universities demonstrated their frustrationat Nixon's policies by organizing sit-ins, demonstrations, andstudent strikes. On May 4, on the campus of Kent State University, afterstudent protestors attempted to burn down the ROTC barracks a couple ofdays earlier, the National Guard and demonstrators, in a standoff, begantossing tear-gas canisters at one another while students threw rocks andverbally assaulted the troops. In a heated exchange, the guardsmen firedupon the crowd and four students were killed. Once news of the KentState killings spread across the country, student demonstratorsprotested the atrocity at private and state institutions, women'scolleges Women's colleges in higher education are undergraduate, bachelor's degree-granting institutions, often liberal arts colleges, whose student populations are comprised exclusively or almost exclusively of women. and parochial schools. While student protests at Black colleges were ordinarilynon-violent and uneventful, Jackson State College proved to be theexception. Located approximately 150 miles northeast of Baton Rouge inJackson, Mississippi, Jackson State was never considered to be atrailblazer in civil rights activism. Nevertheless, the escalation ofthe war, the killings at Kent State University, the report that AfricanAmericans were being killed in disproportionate numbers in Vietnam, andthe idea that Mississippi draft boards were making it all possible werethe right combination to inspire students to action (Spofford, 1988). Even as students assembled in front of the dormitories orcongregated in the student union nine days after the catastrophe at KentState University, the topic of discussion continued to be the draft,Cambodia, and Kent State. However, that night included a rumor that theROTC building would be torched later that evening. By 10:00 pm, a groupof individuals who were not associated with the college began throwingrocks at cars carrying white passengers passing through the campus. Thecampus security immediately responded but was also repelled by theyouths. By 10:30 pm, 150 students gathered near the student union andbegan shouting antiwar slogans and voicing their disgust at ROTCtraining. It was not long before the crowd began to shout, "Letsburn down 'Rotsy!" 'Burn it down! Burn itdown!'" By the time several ROTC cadets and officers who werein the building approached the students and tried to defuse de��fuse?tr.v. de��fused, de��fus��ing, de��fus��es1. To remove the fuse from (an explosive device).2. To make less dangerous, tense, or hostile: thesituation, the crowd had swelled to two to three hundred students. Awitness to the incident, Vernon Weakley, confirms, "It looked as ifthe kids had surrounded the ROTC building. They were screaming andhollering, 'Burn it down! Burn it down!' They were rushing thebuilding, as if trying to get in or tear it down or something like that.The security guards would pull their guns and make a run, and then thekids would go back aways" (Spofford, 1988, p. 39). Once thestudents became tired of the standoff, they quickly left the area.However, hours later three individuals returned carrying bottles filledwith gasoline and tossed them on the roof and porch of the ROTCbuilding. Although the building ignited, the fire was quickly doused byROTC officers. The next morning, Jackson State College President JohnPeoples began to investigate the sequence of events. Much like Felton G.Clark and G. Leon Netterville, Peoples was a strong supporter ofmilitary training. In fact, Peoples was a former Marine drill instructorwho believed that the armed forces afforded African Americans dignityand honor Dignity and Honor is an alleged organization of former Russian spies. It attracted media attention during the Alexander Litvinenko murder case. in a racist society (Spofford, 1988). He was especially proudof the fact that while other institutions were removing ROTC from theircampuses, Jackson State had recently received approval for its unit. The next evening an individual from off campus led a group throwingrocks while 100 students cheered the crowd on. Windows were shatteredand cars were once again assaulted. "At 10:30 p.m. police, highwaypatrolmen and National Guard troops began to materialize out of thenight, marking off their perimeter four blocks from campus with a lineof sawhorses" ("Newsweek," 1970, p. 35). Once a skirmishline was formed, students began to shout obscenities while severalofficers called students "Nigger" and other racial epithets.The loud exchange even drowned out Drowned Out is a 2002 documentary by Franny Armstrong about the controversial Sardar Sarovar Project. It closely follows a family that is unwilling to leave its village home as the water levels of the Narmada River, mostly because the government provides them no viable the officer on the bullhornaddressing the students. In the heat of the moment, someone lobbed abottle at the police and when it burst, it sounded like gunfire."And as if on cue, the police let loose at the crowd with shotguns,pistols, and rifles. They raked the building and the squirming studentson the ground. One student said that those in front of the dormitorywere trying to get inside. Blood was everywhere" (Newsweek, 1970,p. 22). Although one police officer was fired upon during the incident,two female students were killed and nine others were injured. The Jackson State slayings were the only violence at a Blackcollege or university motivated by the antiwar movement and ROTCtraining. Surprisingly, although the terrible events began with studentsattempting to burn down the ROTC building, military training at theinstitution did not suffer from a general lack of interest or studentcontempt. That would at least indicate that in many respects, thestudent outrage over military training at Jackson State was not sharedby the majority of students or faculty. In fact, a year later, accordingto Newsweek (1971), "less understood [was] the remarkablediffidence dif��fi��dence?n.The quality or state of being diffident; timidity or shyness.Noun 1. diffidence - lack of self-confidenceself-distrust, self-doubt of the students. Perhaps their most militant act has been theformation of the first campus chapter of the NAACP NAACPin full National Association for the Advancement of Colored PeopleOldest and largest U.S. civil rights organization. It was founded in 1909 to secure political, educational, social, and economic equality for African Americans; W.E.B. Du Bois and Ida B. . But of real activismthere was virtually none; when an attempt was made to organize a marchon City Hall to protest a proposed relocation of the Jackson Statecampus, less than ten students showed up" (p. 69). The tragic events at Kent and Jackson State Universities wereatypical incidents that reflect how quickly a series of actionsescalated into the unnecessary death of innocent bystanders.Furthermore, it also represents how the war in Vietnam became aspringboard to student activism and the need to vent youth frustrationwith perceived societal injustices and the hypocrisy of fighting forSouth Vietnamese freedom. While the killings at Kent State elicited anemotional response from young White Americans throughout the nation thatdisrupted university operations at twenty percent of the nation'scampuses (DeBenedetti, 1990), the reaction of students at Jackson Statewhere a novel ROTC program existed and the military tradition had nottaken root was an anomaly that embodies a combination of aggravation Any circumstances surrounding the commission of a crime that increase its seriousness or add to its injurious consequences.Such circumstances are not essential elements of the crime but go above and beyond them. andmischief of three determined individuals (Spofford, 1988) with aminority of students who linked the civil rights movement and war inVietnam. But the social and economic benefits of military service andtraining at HBCUs like Prairie View, Tuskegee, Morgan State, andSouthern University where rhetorical confrontations became the extent ofthe antiwar movement on those campuses had a far greater impact on thosestudents than the war. At those HBCUs many students were able to makethe distinction between the war in Vietnam and the benefits of militaryservice and training. A former student at Tuskegee University Tuskegee University,at Tuskegee, Ala.; coeducational; chartered and opened 1881 by Booker T. Washington as Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute. It became Tuskegee Institute in 1937 and adopted its present name in 1985. , JamesLund explained, "For us that worked in civil rights we were oftencritical of the military but we also could see that it was anorganization that at times made more progress in civil rights than therest of the society. I had a number of friends at Tuskegee and otherschools that became officers and were killed. I hated the war more thanthe U.S. military (James Lund, interview by author, interviewtranscript, Superior, Wisconsin, n.d.) On the campus of Southern while the antiwar movement across thenation made headlines, many students continued to voice theirdispleasure with the draft even as administrators persisted with theircommitment to military training. At Southern, President Nettervillereceived good news from the U.S. Department of Navy that its applicationfor a Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC) Unit had beenapproved (1967). Chief of Naval Personnel, Vice Admiral, D.H. Guinn,wrote, "We believe that the environment and facilities at yourInstitution are such that a Naval ROTC Unit there would contributeappreciably to the education and training of officer candidates with aview toward increasing the percentage of minority group officers in theNaval Service The Naval Service is the naval branch of the British Armed Forces, which includes civilian agencies under the control of the Navy Board. According to the Queen's Regulations for the Royal Navy, it consists of: the Royal Navy the Royal Marines . It is desired to establish a Unit of the Naval ROTC at apredominantly Negro university with a target date of September1971" (Letter, D. H. Guinn to G. Leon Netterville, 1970, October17). Though military training programs continued to be criticized in thestudent press and at student gatherings, Netterville believed that themilitary tradition at Southern could successfully support another ROTCprogram and attract a sufficient number of cadets. Southern Digest staff writer Wilbur Robinson continued to criticizeindividuals who participated in ROTC and suggested that ROTC departmentswere a part of a federal conspiracy by the U.S. military to control andoppress op��press?tr.v. op��pressed, op��press��ing, op��press��es1. To keep down by severe and unjust use of force or authority: a people who were oppressed by tyranny.2. minorities: For those of you who aren't aware of it, your friends in ROTC may, one day, have to kill you in order to 'protect and preserve your freedom.' But in order to really understand this we must first know what the military is doing to us and how ROTC fits into this. The Army's domestic intelligence plan that you have been hearing and reading about was devised amid the city riots of 1967 and 1968 so as to enable the Army to move as rapidly as possible to deploy sufficient troops to 'control an outbreak' with the so-called minimum amount of force. If you still aren't convinced about what is being done to you notice, where the National Guard Armory in Baton Rouge is located! It is located at a point where the Black area of Scotlandville and white Baton Rouge is separated. ("RACE AND ROTC: Army Intelligence Was Devised Amid City Riots Five Years Ago," March 1971) Robinson added, "You [ROTC cadets] can go all over the worldto defend another country's freedom but when you come back homeyour Black brothers and sisters will be waiting for you to do somefighting for their freedom too. This is before and after youleave!" ("RACE AND ROTC: Army Intelligence Was Devised AmidCity Riots Five Years Ago," March 1971) Though Robinson'sattitude toward military training and ROTC cadets was fairly common inthe late 1960s, once compulsory ROTC was abolished most students werenot as passionate concerning military training. During the fall semester of 1971, the commission date for the NROTCprogram was established in addition to plans for a ceremony. Along withother invited guests, the university asked Rear Admiral Samuel Gravely,the first African American to attain the rank of admiral, to be thekeynote speaker. The first commander of Southern's NROTC programwas Commander D.A. Griffin. In an interview Griffin explained thepurpose of the program and what students should expect: NROTC was introduced to predominately Black schools in an effort to increase the number of Black officers in the Navy and Marines. A study was done in 1962 to determine the number of Black officers in the navy and the figures showed only 0.3 of one percent were Black. The study was up-dated in 1970 and the findings revealed that the number has risen only 0.4 and as a result of this the programs were instituted in an effort to raise the figures. ("NROTC Commission Date Set; Black Admiral to Do Honors," September 1971) Griffin believed that NROTC held special rewards for AfricanAmericans in particular. He understood the reluctance to join and theopposition to the war, but added, "though he doesn't agreewith the War in Viet Nam he still feels that young Blacks should jointhe Armed Forces if they wish because the war will not go on forever andthat they could be receiving invaluable training. You can serve withoutbeing a flag waver, he said"("NROTC Commission Date Set; BlackAdmiral For the first African-American U.S. Navy admiral, see Samuel Gravely. "Black Admiral" is the colloquial name for a Revolutionary War-era U.S. painting of unknown provenance that appears to depict a black man in U.S. naval uniform. to Do Honors," September 1971). During the dedicationceremony, Admiral Gravely declared that the Navy could improve the lifeof young African Americans and provide well-deserved socialopportunities. "I know that there are problems of discrimination,but I believe, however, that the Navy of today is one of the mostintegrated structures in American Society. It surpasses many of ourchurches, most of our schools and certainly the majority of ourneighborhoods. The Navy's aim is simply this--we want one Navy--NOBlack Navy: NO White Navy, asserted Gravely" ("Admiral RelatesNavy Efforts To Improve Lot of Minority," October 1971). The end of 1971 held good news for military training programsthroughout the nation but for African-American institutions inparticular. The Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Education, Dr.George C.S. Benson, reported that ROTC programs were multiplying aroundthe country despite recent setbacks. Benson proclaimed, "Accordingto a recent U.S. News and World Report, there are more ReserveOfficers' Training Corps Units on college campuses this fall thanever before despite 400 anti-ROTC actions in 1969-70 and 110 in 1970-71.Only 11 universities have voted to end ROTC and 15 new units haveformed--seven at predominately Black colleges" ("CampusMilitants Won Skirmishes but Lost The War," December 1971). Whileprivate White institutions were removing their ROTC programs,African-American colleges and universities continued to request theestablishment of military training programs at their institutions.Benson believed that not only did Black institutions help boost thenumber of ROTC programs, but they provided a source of much neededAfrican-American officers to the armed forces. "We have several newunits," observes Benson, "in what are predominately Blackcolleges and I would really rather have them than Harvard and theothers. In the first place we need Black officers. Predominately Blackcolleges realize that the Negro still has to fight his way forward andthe armed forces have been the fairest arena in U.S. life"("Campus Militants Won Skirmishes but Lost The War," December1971). The Department of Defense planned to increase the number ofcadets by offering financial incentives and raising the number ofscholarships available to students. Students who enrolled in ROTCprograms would receive $100 per month instead of the previous amount of$50. Over the next 5 years the Department of Defense planned to add $50million dollars to the ROTC budget. In preparation for the All-Volunteer Armed Forces andAmerica's withdrawal from Vietnam in 1972, the Selective ServiceSystem made policy changes that reduced the number of draftees inducted.The news received front page attention at Southern University becausefor the first time it afforded enlistees the opportunity to determinewhether they would serve on active duty, the National Guard or Reserves."The only option to men who had received induction orders in pastmonths was to join one of the Regular branches of the service for atleast three years active duty. No Guard or Reserve enlistments orappointments were authorized after the mailing of inductionorders." But under the new policy, "Men who receive inductionorders and desire to enter in the Guard or Reserve must locate unitvacancies on their own. They should request that their enlistments orappointments in the Guard or Reserves require at least 4 months activeduty for training and the balance of six years participating in theReady Reserve" ("On Induction: New SS Policy Effective July1," (June 1972). Before the end of the 1972 fall semester, a series of unfortunateevents would lead to the saddest days the university ever experienced.In late October, the student organization Students United delivered alist of grievances to Netterville and reconvened the next day at themen's gymnasium where an additional 3,500 arrived. When studentrecommendations were only partially met, student leaders called for theresignation of Netterville and other top-level administrators. Nearly7,000 students marched to the State Capital and demanded to speak withthe Governor. Once the students returned to campus, Netterville closedthe university and ordered students to vacate To annul, set aside, or render void; to surrender possession or occupancy.The term vacate has two common usages in the law. With respect to real property, to vacate the premises means to give up possession of the property and leave the area totally devoid of contents. the dormitories andbuildings. The Sheriff and State Police were placed on standby as wellas the National Guard. "The incidents at Southern in Baton Rougewere not isolated examples of Black college students in Louisianademanding changes," asserts Charles Vincent. "The students atSUNO called for a redefining of that institution, as well as the Dean ofthe school, Dr. Emmit Bashful's resignation" (Vincent, 1981,pp. 215-216). On November 6, 1972, tension grew when Students United attempted tomeet on campus but was turned away by sheriff's deputies. The nextday, an unexplainable fire occurred in T.T. Allain Hall in which theHorticulture Barn was destroyed. The university identified eightstudents as campus agitators who were quickly served arrest warrants.After student leaders met with the Governor's appointed "BlueRibbon" committee and state officials, many individuals believedthat progress was forthcoming. But on November 16, after the arrest offour leaders of Students United, students promptly marched to theadministration building and demanded to speak with Netterville. Soonreports that students had taken over the administration building reachedauthorities. Before they could respond, Netterville had agreed to godowntown and have the students released. Before he could return, statepolice and sheriff's deputies armed with shotguns, automaticweapons, and an armored vehicle converged on the campus and surroundedthe administration building. Much like at Jackson State, because ofcrowd noise students did not hear police orders to disburse dis��burse?tr.v. dis��bursed, dis��burs��ing, dis��burs��esTo pay out, as from a fund; expend. See Synonyms at spend.[Obsolete French desbourser, from Old French desborser and leavethe area. When State police fired tear gas tear gas,gas that causes temporary blindness through the excessive flow of tears resulting from irritation of the eyes. The gas is used in chemical warfare and as a means for dispersing mobs. canisters into the crowd,students began throwing them back at the police. Once this occurred, thepolice began firing more tear gas at the students. However, one policeofficer fired live rounds into the crowd and killed two students("A deadly history ... Chronology of events that led to death ofstudents," January 1973). Although no one was ever arrested for the murder of thedemonstrators, the incident left a lasting impression on the universityand Netterville. Only months later, after blaming himself for theincident, Netterville resigned as president of Southern University(Vincent, 1981). While the killings on Southern's campus were notdirectly linked to military training or the ROTC department, theincident only magnified the mistrust that many students felt for symbolsof authority and government officials. The tragedy at Southern was muchlike Kent State and Jackson State College. Young people were discouragedby the state of American society and saw themselves as victims ofoppressive authority. By 1973, Nixon's plans for withdrawal in Vietnam were wellunderway and the U.S. Congress had already approved the termination ofthe draft. Protest against the war or the armed forces did not hold thesame urgency or attention that it once did on most college campuses.According to Michael Lanning (1997), "One of the most crucialfactors in racial unrest and negative attitudes toward the militaryduring the Vietnam era was the Selective Service System. Blacks believedthat boards drafted them in disproportionate numbers and that liberaldeferments were more readily available to Whites" (p. 276). Withthe end of the draft, the U.S. military attempted to make militaryservice more attractive by improving the pay, benefits, and housingconditions housing conditionsnpl → condiciones fpl de habitabilidadhousing conditionsnpl → conditions fpl de logement . A decade of antiwar protest appeared to have littleinfluence over the thousands of African Americans who filled recruitingstations and enlisted in the all-volunteer force. (Moskos & Wood,1988) Though ROTC enrollment would never equal the levels when militarytraining was mandatory at Southern, ROTC programs reached a milestonewhen they began admitting women into their ranks. As early as the springof 1972, the NROTC department at Southern became one of four highereducation institutions and the first African-American university toadmit female cadets ("Southern NROTC Among First to AdmitWomen," March 1972). During the fall of 1973, Southern's ArmyROTC department proudly announced that female students were eligible forthe ROTC. Army Captain Robert C. Meager mea��geralso mea��gre ?adj.1. Deficient in quantity, fullness, or extent; scanty.2. Deficient in richness, fertility, or vigor; feeble: the meager soil of an eroded plain.3. , Director of Instruction,confirmed that "this is the first year that this has beenauthorized. The program has expanded throughout every university in thecountry. Presently, the ROTC program does not offer a major or minor butnonetheless, fifteen freshmen women have responded to the benefits ofthis program" ("Women May Train As ROTC Officers,"September 1973). The fact that the armed forces had incorporated anaggressive affirmative-action program and women were now being recruitedby the U.S. military had a tremendous impact on the number of femalesinterested in military service. In addition, there were a greater numberof occupational specialties available to women. Between 1968 and 1973, the war in Vietnam caused many of the socialand political problems in American society. The war unleashed politicaltensions between "hawks" and "doves," generationaldivisions between young adults and middle-aged Americans, and politicalstruggles between pacifist and cold warriors. In particular, AfricanAmericans and poor Americans witnessed Great Society reform effortsstall, while the under-class became marked for combat in Southeast Asia.The student antiwar movement developed from these struggles andpolarized A one-way direction of a signal or the molecules within a material pointing in one direction. America even more (Appy 1993). On the campuses of Black colleges and universities, the antiwarmovement divided the student body and faculty on many issues. Antiwarsupporters focused on political and ideological reasons not to supportthe war or military training, while pro-military advocates concentratedon the social and economic advantages of military service. Althoughmilitary training programs at Southern University and other blackcolleges and universities would never again reach the height ofpopularity they had in the 1950s, the fact that they continued toattract interested men and women as draft calls shrank and endedaltogether demonstrated that the longstanding appeal of military serviceat those institutions had survived its most turbulent days and continuedto impact the Black community as well as the U.S. armed forces (Johnson,2002). References Adams, A. (1969, May 3). Protestors from SUNO gather here. TheMorning Advocate, 1A1. Adams, G. (1969, May 20). Gov. McKeithen tours Southern Universitycampus. The Morning Advocate, 1A10. Against the black digest. (1969, March 27) The Southern UniversityDigest, 2. Andrew, R (2001). Long gray lines: The southern military schooltradition, 1839-1915. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North CarolinaPress The University of North Carolina Press (or UNC Press), founded in 1922, is a university press that is part of the University of North Carolina. External linkUniversity of North Carolina Press . Appy, C. (1993). Working-class war: American combat soldiers &Vietnam. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press. Attacks on ROTC unfounded; Author sees corps preventing militaryelite. (1969, December) The Southern University Digest, 1. Augustus, E. (1969, September 26). R.O.T.C. goes voluntary.Southern University Digest, 9. Boyer, P. (1995). Promises to keep: The United States since worldwar II. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company. Campus militants won skirmishes but lost the war. (1971, December3). The Southern University Digest, 5. Comment ... (1968, November 1). The Southern University Digest, 2. Committee set on ROTC in Lake Charles. (1969, April 20). MorningAdvocate, B4. Compulsory ROTCogive us choice. (1968, May 17). The SouthernUniversity Digest, 2. Crider, B. (1969, May 6). Students leave SU in Orleans; McKeithenholds back guard. The Morning Advocate, 1A1. Dabbs, H. (1997). Black brass: Black generals and admirals in thearmed forces of the United States. Charlottesville, VA: Howell Press. Dark day in Jackson. (1970, May 25). Newsweek, 35. Davis, J (1997). Assault on the left: The FBI and the sixtiesantiwar movement. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. A deadly history ... chronology of events that led to death ofstudents. (1973, January 19). The Southern University Digest, 1. DeBenedetti, C. (1990). An American ordeal: The antiwar movement ofthe Vietnam era. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press Syracuse University Press, founded in 1943, is a university press that is part of Syracuse University. External linkSyracuse University Press . Dixon, K. (1969, May 13). SU unrest blamed on untrue reports.Morning Advocate, 1A6. Dixon, K. (1969, May 15). Calm prevails at SU after governor meet.Morning Advocate, 1A1. Farber, D. (1994). The age of great dreams: America in the 1960s.New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Hill and Wang. Foley, M. (2003). Confronting the war machine: Draft resistanceduring the Vietnam war. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of NorthCarolina Press. Garfinkle, A. (1995). Telltale hearts: The origins and impact ofthe Vietnam antiwar movement. New York: St. Martinis Griffin. Gerhardt, J. M. (1971). The draft and public policy: Issues inmilitary manpower procurement, 1945-1970. Columbus, OH: Ohio StateUniversity Press The Ohio State University Press, founded in 1957, is a university press and a part of The Ohio State University. External linksOhio State University Press The Ohio State University ; Also see Marilyn Young, The vietnam wars, 1945-1990.(New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1991). Gilliard, B. (1971, October 16). Admiral relates navy efforts toimprove lot of minority. The Southern University Digest, 1. Harlaux, B. & Sims, V. (1970, February 27). 67 S.U. grad diesin Viet Nam, The Southern Digest, 5. Heineman, K. J. (1993). Campus wars: The peace movement at Americanstate universities in the Vietnam era. New York: New York UniversityPress New York University Press (or NYU Press), founded in 1916, is a university press that is part of New York University. External linkNew York University Press . Highlights of student leadership conference. (1968, October 14).The Southern University Digest, 1. Isserman, M. & Kazin, M. (2000). America divided: The civil warof the 1960s. New York: Oxford University Press. Jackson State becalmed be��calm?tr.v. be��calmed, be��calm��ing, be��calms1. To render motionless for lack of wind: "Across the harbor, a small sailing skiff, becalmed near some reeds, caught the breeze again". (1971, March 1). Newsweek, 69. Johnson, C. (2002). African Americans and ROTC: Military, naval andareoscience programs at historically black colleges, 1916-1973.Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. Lanning, M. (1997). The African-American soldier: From CrispusAttucks Crispus Attucks (c. 1723 – March 5, 1770), was the first of five people killed in the Boston Massacre. He has been frequently named as the first martyr for the cause of American Independence and is the only person of the five killed whose name is commonly remembered. to Colin Powell Noun 1. Colin Powell - United States general who was the first African American to serve as chief of staff; later served as Secretary of State under President George W. Bush (born 1937)Colin luther Powell, Powell . New Jersey: Carol Publishing Group. Letter, D. H. Guinn, Vice Admiral, United States Navy United States NavyMajor branch of the U.S. military forces, charged with defending the nation at sea and maintaining security on the seas wherever U.S. interests extend. The Continental Navy was established by the Continental Congress in 1775. Chief ofNaval Personnel to G. Leon Netterville, President, Southern Universityand A&M College. (1970, October, 17). Retrieved from file: NavalROTC, Box Marked: General Information 1971-1972, Southern UniversityArchives, Southern University and A&M College, Baton Rouge, LA. Letter, F.G. Clark, President, Southern University and A&MCollege to Howard C. Petersen, Assistant Secretary of War, (1947, 24June). Retrieved from file: ROTC Unit Request, 1946-1948, Cabinet R,F.G. Clark Papers, Southern University Archives, Southern University andA&M College, Baton Rouge, LA. Letter to editor. (1969, March 27). The Southern University Digest,3. Lloyd X, right on panthers! right on. (1970, February 13). TheSouthern University Digest, 5. McClinton, B. (1972, March 25). Southern NROTC among first to admitwomen. The Southern University Digest, 5. Memorandum, Martin L. Harvey, Dean of Student Affairs to G. LeonNetterville, President, Southern University and A&M College. (1968,November 18). Retrieved from file: ROTC, 1969, Cabinet 16, SouthernUniversity Archives, Southern University and A&M College, BatonRouge, LA. Memorandum, Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense to MajorGeneral Hugh M. Milton, Executive for Reserve and ROTC Affairs. (1952,December 22). Retrieved from file: Educational Institutions,Civil-General; General Correspondence, 1948-54; Entry 149, Box 6; RecordGroup 319; National Archives Building, College Park, MD. Memorandum, The Executive Committee of the Conference of Presidentsof Land-Grant Colleges for Negroes to The U.S. Office of Education.(1948, April 2). Retrieved from file: Committee on Universal MilitaryTraining, 1947-48; Records of the Office of Education, Office File ofAmbrose Caliver; Entry17; Box 3; Record Group 12; National ArchivesBuilding, College Park, MD. Moskos, C., & Butler, J. (1996). All that we can be: Blackleadership and racial integration the army way. New York: BasicBooks,. Moskos, C., & Wood, F. (ed.) (1988). The military: More thanjust a job? New York: Pergamon-Brassey's International DefensePublishers. Mullen, R. (1973). Blacks in America's wars: The shift inattitudes from the revolutionary war to Vietnam. New York: Monad monad:see Bruno, Giordano; Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, Baron von. (theory, functional programming) monad - /mo'nad/ A technique from category theory which has been adopted as a way of dealing with state in functional programming languages in such a Press. Neiberg, M. (2000). Making citizen soliders: ROTC and the ideologyof American military service. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press The Harvard University Press is a publishing house, a division of Harvard University, that is highly respected in academic publishing. It was established on January 13, 1913. In 2005, it published 220 new titles. . Netterville states policy on disruptions. (1969, September 5). TheMorning Advocate, B5. Netterville meets with SUNO leaders. (1969, April 19). The MorningAdvocate, 1A16 Nixon draft caricature. (1970, February 27). The SouthernUniversity Digest, 5. Northeast ROTC goes elective. (1969, August 2). Morning Advocate,B5. On induction: New SS policy effective July 1. (1972, June 29). TheSouthern University Digest, 1. Robinson, W. (1971, March 11). RACE AND ROTC: Army intelligence wasdevised amid city riots five years ago. The Southern University Digest,2-4. ROTC--1969, Cabinet 16, Southern University Archives, SouthernUniversity and A&M College, Baton Rouge, LA. ROTC is doing OK. (1969, May 19). Morning Advocate, 2A2. ROTC flight program at Southern University. (1969, October 24).Southern University Digest. 10. ROTC made voluntary by LSU board. (1969, May 27). Morning Advocate,A1. Shapiro, H. (1989). "The Vietnam War and the American CivilRights Movement," The Journal of Ethnic Studies. (Winter 1989):118-135. Smith, H. (1969, May 23). SUNO REVOLTS. The Southern UniversityDigest, 2. The south: Death in two cities. (1970, May 25). Time, 22. Spofford, T. (1988). Lynch street: The May 1970 slayings at Jacksonstate college. Kent, OH: The Kent State University Press. St. Amant, L. (1971, September 25). NROTC commission date set;Black admiral to do honors. The Southern University Digest, 6. Status of ROTC in review at S.U. (1969, October 17). SouthernUniversity Digest, 1. Students march on the capital to protest white racist killing.(1968, May 17). The Southern University Digest, 7. Terry, W. (1984). Bloods: An oral history of the Vietnam War byBlack veterans. New York: Ballantine Books. 21 TU students are disciplined. (1969, May 22). The Times-Picayune,1A1. Useem, M. (1973). Conscription, protest, and social conflict: Thelife and death of a draft resistance movement. New York: AWiley-Interscience Publication. Vincent, C. (1981). A centennial history of southern university andA&M college, 1880-1980. Baton Rouge, LA: Moran Industries. Williams, F. (1968, December 18). "R.O.T.C. Vs The man,"The Southern University Digest, 10. Women may train as ROTC officers. (1973, September 14). TheSouthern University Digest, 1. Marcus S. Cox is an assistant professor of history and director ofAfrican-American studies at The Citadel, Charleston, South Carolina.